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Animal and Plant Biology II > Ecology > Flashcards

Ecology Flashcards

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1
Q

why is ecology important?

A

human dominated time period - impact on lots of environments globally so want to understand the impact we’re having on different populations

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2
Q

what is the LPI?

A

living planet index

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3
Q

what does LPI tell us?

A
  • indicator of the state of the world’s biodiversity

- measures trends in populations of vertebrate species living interrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems

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4
Q

describe the state of the worlds biodiversity.

A
  • global decline of 27%
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5
Q

why are albatross endangered?

A

Eats a lot fish → at the moment we are overfishing → taking away part of its food source
Long line fishing → long lines, get tangled in the lines and then they can drown

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6
Q

why do ecologists need to understand why populations change in size?

A

to reverse the declines

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7
Q

what is a population?

A

a group of individuals of the same species living in a given area at a given time

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8
Q

what can we look at to understand how our populations are changing?

A
  1. Size → number of individuals
  2. Range → area they’re covering
  3. Density → number of individuals in a given area
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9
Q

what are the different types of population?

A

closed population. metapopulation. open population.

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10
Q

what are the different types of populations based on?

A

based on importance of birth/death rates and dispersal

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11
Q

what is a closed population?

A

Numbers of individuals is driven by the number of births and deaths in these populations
Limit of dispersal is pretty short

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12
Q

what is an example of a closed population?

A

Example → Northern brown argus (butterfly), see in scotland and durham in disused quarries, quarries are quite distant so we don’t see much movement between them

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13
Q

what is a metapopulation?

A

Some movement

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14
Q

what is an open population?

A

Limit of dispersal encompasses a lot of patches so can have a lot of movement between them
Size of population is going to be driven mainly by dispersal

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15
Q

what is an example of an open population?

A

Small tortoiseshell (butterfly) → lives around patches of nettles, so there is a lot more movement

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16
Q

what are the different patterns of spatial distribution?

A
  1. Clumped - When you find one individual have a high probability of finding another individual
  2. Uniform - Regular pattern
  3. Random
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17
Q

what are patterns of temporal distribution?

A
  • Species are distributed in time as well as in space
  • Seasonal/daily changes in distribution eg migration
  • Life cycles
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18
Q

what are the 2 different types of life cycles?

A
  1. Semelparous

2. Iteroparous

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19
Q

what is semelparous?

A

annual, overlapping eg insects, reproduce once then die

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20
Q

what is iteroparous?

A

continuous, overlapping eg tree, once they reach maturity can reproduce many times

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21
Q

what are the features of population dynamics?

A
  • rates of reproduction
  • death
  • migration
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22
Q

what are life tables?

A
  • all populations contain individuals of different ages

- looking at patterns of mortality

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23
Q

what are the assumptions of life tables?

A

Assume population changes are due only to changes in birth and death rates (no migration) → limitation
Assume a closed population

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24
Q

what are the 2 types of life tables?

A
  1. cohort life tables (semelparous)

2. static life tables (long lived iteroparous species)

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25
Q

what can we find out from a cohort life table?

A
  • tell us the number of organisms that an individual is having in its life cycle
  • can figure out if the population is increasing, stable or declining
  • find out how much reproduction is happening
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26
Q

what does the little x mean?

A

age class or life stage

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27
Q

what is ax?

A

total number of individuals observed at each stage or class (in a closed population)

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28
Q

what is Nx?

A

the standardized number of individuals in each age/stage x

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29
Q

what is Ix?

A

proportion of original number of individuals surviving to the next stage or class; survivorship

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30
Q

what is dx?

A

proprtion of original number of individuals dying during each stage or class; mortality

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31
Q

what is qx?

A

mortality rate for each stage or class

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32
Q

what is Fx?

A

total fecundity or reproductive output of entire population, for each stage or class

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33
Q

what is mx?

A

individual fecundity or mean reproductive output for each stage or class

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34
Q

what is lxmx?

A

number of offspring produced per original individual during each stage or class; product of survival and reproduction

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35
Q

what is R0?

A

basic reproductive rate average number of offspring that a female produces during her lifetime, consider if organism is semelparous or iterparous

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36
Q

what does the study of populations involve?

A
  1. description of population charactersitics
  2. exploration of factors determining population size
  3. use models to predict growth of populations
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37
Q

what are the limits to population growth?

A
  • physical environment
  • intrasepcific interactions
  • interactions with other species
    (biotic and abiotic)
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38
Q

how can we use the information from a life table?

A

population age structure. population growth rate. population survivorship patterns

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39
Q

what can we find out from a static life table?

A

Use the data to figure out if the young are reproducing and plot survivorship curves

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40
Q

what does R0 represent?

A

Net reproductive rate - average number of offspring produced by a female in her lifetime

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41
Q

what does R0 = 1 represent?

A

replacement rate - steady and stable

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42
Q

what does R0 < 1 represent?

A

a declining population

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43
Q

R0 > 1 represent?

A

an increasing population

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44
Q

what is little r?

A

per capita rate of increase

  • intrinsic rate of natural increase
  • instantaneous rate
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45
Q

what is the equation for r?

A

r = ln(R)

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46
Q

why do ecologists usually use r?

A

easier to see if the population is increasing or decreasing

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47
Q

why should we use data to make a model?

A

Shed light on what’s happening in the natural world
Desire to formulate general rules in ecology
Graphical or mathematical
Help us figure out the shared properties of different populations and compare

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48
Q

what is the intrinsic rate determined by?

A

how quickly individuals reproduce and how long they live

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49
Q

what is the carrying capacity?

A

the maximum number of individuals a habitat can support

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50
Q

how does growth differ in relation to life history?

A
  1. Discrete individuals eg grasshoppers

2. Continuous breeding eg humans

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51
Q

describe discrete intervals

A

Geometric growth
Individuals added to population in events
Suppose each individual gives rise to 2 new individuals
Factor by which population increases = reproductive rate = finite rate of increase R = 2
At time point N1 we have twice as many individuals at time point N0
Nt+1 = RNt → general equation
This pattern of population growth can also be written as Nt = N0Rt
This equation has some irritating mathematical properties
The model describes a population with no competition, R is constant and if R>1 the population will continue to increase

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52
Q

describe continuous breeding

A

Nt = N0e(^rt)
R = intrinsic rate of reproduction
e = base of natural log
Therefore R = e(^r) → r = ln(R)

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53
Q

why are pests spreading?

A

the climate

54
Q

describe the invasion of the harlequin ladybird

A

Introduced from Asia and feeds on our native species
The impacts - Detrimental impacts on native UK ladybird populations
The evidence - Measure the population growth rate of the invader, AND rate of population decline in native ladybird species

55
Q

describe logistic growth

A

equation assumes resource (or prey) affects carrying capacity

56
Q

what are the 2 types of competition that individuals will face in the real world?

A

intra and interspecific competition

57
Q

what is competition?

A

interaction between two individuals that both need the same resource which is in limited supply - leads to a reduction in survivor-ship

58
Q

what are the features of competition?

A
  • decreased contribution to the next generation
  • resources must be in limited supply
  • density dependence
59
Q

what is intraspecific competition?

A

between individuals of the same species

60
Q

what is interspecific competition?

A

between individuals of different species

61
Q

what is scramble (exploitation) competition?

A
  • no direct interaction

- interspecific - one species would be coming away with more

62
Q

what is contest (direct or interference) competition?

A

some type of confrontation

63
Q

what are the 3 features of intraspecific competition?

A
  1. decreased contribution to the next generation
  2. resources must be limited supply
  3. density dependence - if competitiros increase then competition increases
64
Q

describe density dependent factors on population growth

A
  • impact of the factor increases as we get more individuals in our population
  • regulating factors become more effective as population density increases
  • causes an increase or decrease in growth rate
  • drives the population towards carrying capacity
65
Q

what are some examples of density dependent factors?

A 
Competition for resources → food
Predation → to be eaten
Disease → to catch a disease
Toxic waste build-up → eg by products build up
Intrinsic factors
Territoriality → hormones and aggression
66
Q

describe density independent factors on population growth

A
  • effectiveness of limiting factors is independent of population density
  • graphically shows an instantaneous drop in population size
  • can occur at different starting densities
67
Q

what are some examples of density independent factors?

A

Environmental factors that check N or distribution (floods, fires, droughts, earthquakes, etc.)

68
Q

what are some features of interspecific interactions?

A
  • similar potential to regulate populations
  • generally less intense
  • often very asymmetric
  • occurs when individuals of one species suffer a reduction in growth, survival or fecundity as a result of activities of another species
  • species from distant taxa compete
69
Q

what is competitive exclusion?

A

not all species occur everywhere

70
Q

what is coexistence

A

when competition does not lead to exclusion - differ in the way they use a resource - specialisation

71
Q

what is a niche?

A

combination of a conditions and resources which allow a species to maintain viable populations

72
Q

what is a fundamental niche?

A

the set of conditions and resources that a species could occupy in the absence of competition

73
Q

what is a realised niche?

A

the set of conditions and resources that a species actually occupies

74
Q

what is the competitive exclusion principle?

A
  • two competing species coesxit

- if there is no differentiation between them one species will exclude the other

75
Q

what happens to predators in the absence of prey?

A

predators decline exponentially

76
Q

what does predator-prey interaction depend on

A
  • rate at which food is consumed
  • the predators efficiency at turning food into offspring
  • predator birth rate
77
Q

what are coupled oscillations?

A
  • large food source for predators
  • predators eats the food source so it declines
  • predator population then declines as there’s not enough prey
78
Q

what is habitat fragmentation?

A

patch of habitat surrounded by an environment that isn’t ideal for species living in the patch of habitat

79
Q

what are the challenges of habitat fragmentation?

A
  • reduced biodiversity
  • reduced area of habitat size
  • not enough resources and/or mates
80
Q

what are the 3 principles of island biogeography?

A
  • effect of area and isolation
  • dynamic equilibrium
  • faunal collapse
81
Q

why does GB have more species than Ireland?

A
  • bigger surface area, more oppurtunity for habitat
  • many terrestrial animals came across from mainland europe
  • ireland is more isolated
82
Q

what is the importance of island area for species richness?

A

as island area increases so does our number of species

83
Q

why is isolation important?

A

if an island is closer to the mainland and may therefore have more species than that island should for its size

84
Q

what is Darlington’s rule of thumb?

A
  • Relationship between area and number of species is remarkably constant
  • As you move from one area to another 1/10th the size the number of species in a particular group will be halved
  • Can reverse this and use it to predict the impact on species
85
Q

what is the equation that links the area and the number of species?

A

S = CA^z (to get a stratightline: Log S = Z log A + log C)

86
Q

use the florida mangrove to give an example of area and isolation

A

The Florida Mangroves - Dan Simberloff
Test: experimental manipulation of size → impact of changing the size of the island on arthropods
Saw: changes in the number of arthropod species on mangrove islands
As area decreases so does the species richness

87
Q

what is dyanmic equilibrium?

A

dynamic equilibrium between colonisation and extinction - island species diversity

88
Q

what happens to the rate of new species arriving on an island over time?

A

drops as species accumulate

89
Q

what happens to the rate of extinction on an island over time?

A

increases - compete for resources

90
Q

describe dynamic equilibrium on larger islands

A

have more colonists and lower rates of extinction compared to smaller islands (assumes there is no difference in isolation of islands)

91
Q

describe dynamic equilibrium in isolated islands

A

Isolated islands have lower rates of colonisation compared to near islands and thus fewer species at equilibrium (assumes size is the same)

92
Q

what is faunal collapse?

A

how long does it take to lose species after fragmentation

93
Q

what is relaxation time?

A

how quickly we lose species

94
Q

how can calculate relaxation time?

A
  • look at continental land bridge islands
95
Q

what are continental bridge islands?

A

formed after the last ice age

96
Q

how was separation determined?

A
  • sea depth around the islands
  • deep sea = longer ago
  • longer ago = fewer species
97
Q

what is extinction debt?

A

more species than an area can support because not all species have died off yet when there has been a reduction in size

98
Q

which species will be lost?

A
  • species living at low population densities
  • those with large range requirements
  • those higher up the trophic ladder
  • those that depend on rare habitats or require scarce resources
99
Q

why doesn’t everything live everywhere?

A

physical constraints

100
Q

what is meant by physical constraints?

A
  • dictate the range of environmental variables an organism can survive in eg temperature
101
Q

what is the fundamental niche?

A

The full range of environmental conditions that a viable population of species can occupy and use
Changeable (move alter with climate change) → will change over time
All the places where the species could live

102
Q

what is the realised niche?

A

The set of conditions which are actually occupied
More restricted than the fundamental niche
All the places where the species actually live

103
Q

why isn’t everything everywhere that is physically suitable?

A
  1. can’t get there - LIMITED DISPERSAL

2. INTERACTIONS with other species

104
Q

what is a niche?

A

a multidimensional habitat that allows a species to practise its way of life

105
Q

what are some examples of interspecific interactions?

A

antagonism
mutualism
commensalism
amensalism

106
Q

what is antagonism?

A

where at least one participant loses more than it gains by the interaction

107
Q

what is mutualism?

A

where interactions enhance the reproduction and population growth of both species

108
Q

how are interactions dynamic?

A

Interactions may be costly or beneficial
Natural selection may cause adaptations (to reduce cost or maximise benefit)
May lead to coevolution and speciation

109
Q

what is competition?

A

Competition for limited resources (food, mates, shelter, light, space) is a lose-lose situation (with one competitor likely to lose more)

110
Q

what is resource partitioning?

A

Evolutionary pressure to minimize overlap species’ niches

111
Q

what are two features of predation?

A
  • coevolution

- prey switching

112
Q

what is coevolution?

A

adaptation and counter adaptation

113
Q

what is pprey switching?

A

preference for the most common type of prey

114
Q

describe paratism in cuckoos

A

social parasties - lay their eggs in the nests of other species

115
Q

what are mutualistic interactions?

A

These are win-win situations - both participants have greater than cost

116
Q

how are benefits of mutualistic interactions measured?

A

Benefit is measured in terms of increased reproductive output and survival

117
Q

what are the benefits of mutualistic interactions?

A

Benefits include access to nutrients, shelter, reproductive facilitation

118
Q

what are the costs of mutualistic interactions?

A

Costs include energy-consumption, loss of food resources, investment in protein/fat/carbohydrate structures and specialised tissue

119
Q

what is obligate?

A

If one or both sides of mutualism cannot survive without the other

120
Q

what is facultative?

A

If one or both sides can survive without the other

121
Q

how do obligate relationships begin?

A

start out as facultative and were reinforced over time by nautral selection

122
Q

what is an example of coevolution?

A

flowers evolved in response to pollinators - who in turn adapted in response to availability

123
Q

how can mutualisms become antagonisms?

A

if one partner begins to cheat

124
Q

use tubualr flowers and bees as an example of mutualisms becoming antagonsims?

A

Tubular flowers → bees must go past the anthers or stigma increasing population but slowing down the bee
If bees nip the flower base from the outside they can drink the nectar without pollinating the flower → saving time

125
Q

what is commensalism?

A

An interaction in which one party benefits with no cost of benefit to the other

126
Q

what is amensalism?

A

An interaction in which one party is harmed with no cost or benefit to the other

127
Q

What is necessary in order for natural selection to occur, according to Darwin and Wallace?

A

Reproduction. Heritability. Variation. Differential survival and reproduction.

128
Q

What benefits from infanticide in lions?

A

Genes for infanticide, individual lions committing infanticide

129
Q

What benefits from the suicidal stinging of honeybee species?

A

Genes for stinging, bee colonies, honeybee species

130
Q

What type of model is the IFD model?

A
  • optimisation model (each animal behaves to maximise its own fitness)
  • ESS model (best behaviour depends on the rest of the population)

Animal and Plant Biology II (5 decks)

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