Reproduction Flashcards
What is reproduction?
Reproduction is the process by which organisms multiply to increase in number.
Why is reproduction important?
It is important in maintaining the life of organisms from one generation to another.
What are the two types of reproduction?
The two types of reproduction are asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.
Does asexual reproduction involve the fusion of gametes?
No, asexual reproduction does not involve the fusion of gametes.
Name a form of asexual reproduction.
Budding, spore formation, fragmentation, binary fission, multiple fission, and vegetative reproduction are forms of asexual reproduction.
What is vegetative reproduction?
Vegetative reproduction is a mode of reproduction in plants where seeds develop into a new individual from parts other than the seeds.
Where does vegetative reproduction usually take place in plants?
It takes place in rhizomes, bulbs, corms, suckers, stolons, and runners.
What are some advantages of vegetative reproduction?
Advantages include resembling the parent plant, rapid growth, no need for dispersal agents, and covering large areas quickly.
What are some disadvantages of vegetative reproduction?
Disadvantages include competition for resources, potential for disease transmission, and maintenance of poor traits from the parent plant.
What is artificial vegetative propagation?
Artificial vegetative propagation is where humans are involved in the propagation process, using methods like budding, layering, grafting, and cuttings.
Describe budding in plants.
Budding is the process where a bud is detached from a plant and grown in suitable conditions into a new plant.
What is grafting in plant reproduction?
Grafting involves inserting part of one plant onto another plant so that they grow as one plant; the inserted part is called a scion, and the part receiving it is called a stock.
What is layering in plant reproduction?
Layering is when a branch of a plant is bent to touch the ground, allowed to develop roots, and then cut to grow as a separate plant.
What are cuttings in plant reproduction?
Cuttings are stem or root parts taken from a parent plant, buried in soil to produce new roots and shoots, forming a new plant.
What is plant tissue culture?
Plant tissue culture is a technique to grow plant cells, tissues, or organs under sterile conditions on a nutrient medium, often used for micro propagation.
What are some advantages of asexual reproduction?
Advantages include reliability, genetic consistency, early maturity, self-sufficiency, and no need for formation of sex organs.
What are some disadvantages of asexual reproduction?
Disadvantages include maintenance of bad characters, lack of variation, competition, reduction of strength, and high disease transmission.
Name a commercial application of asexual reproduction in plants.
Applications include crop improvement, mass production, maintaining consistent characteristics, and rapid establishment of orchards.
What is sexual reproduction?
Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote.
What is pollination?
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same or different flower of the same species.
What are the two types of pollination?
The two types of pollination are self-pollination and cross-pollination.
What is self-pollination?
Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower.
What is cross-pollination?
Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower of the same species.
Name a feature that promotes cross-pollination.
Features include brightly colored petals, scent, nectar, sticky pollen, and a large, feathery stigma.
What is a characteristic of wind-pollinated flowers?
Wind-pollinated flowers are usually not scented, lack nectar, produce large quantities of light pollen, and have large, feathery stigmas.
What is dichogamy?
Dichogamy is a condition where the stamens and pistils do not ripen at the same time, preventing self-fertilization.
What is the difference between self-fertilization and cross-fertilization?
Self-fertilization involves one individual and results in reduced genetic diversity, while cross-fertilization involves two individuals and increases genetic diversity.
What are the advantages of self-fertilization?
Advantages include maintaining desirable genetic traits, but it may lead to weakening of variety or species.
What are the advantages of cross-fertilization?
Cross-fertilization increases genetic variability and adaptability to environmental changes.
What is the process of fertilization in plants?
Fertilization involves pollen grains landing on the stigma, germinating to form a pollen tube, and fusing with the egg nucleus to form a zygote and endosperm.
What happens to the zygote after fertilization in plants?
The zygote divides to form an embryo, and the ovules develop into seeds, with the ovary developing into a fruit.
What are the types of seeds?
Seeds are classified as monocotyledonous (one cotyledon) and dicotyledonous (two cotyledons).
What is a monocotyledonous seed?
A monocotyledonous seed contains one cotyledon, e.g., maize.
What is a dicotyledonous seed?
A dicotyledonous seed contains two cotyledons, e.g., beans.
What is the hilum of a seed?
The hilum is a scar on the seed where it was attached to the fruit wall.
What are the parts of a seed?
Parts include testa, tegmen, micropyle, radicle, plumule, hilum, endosperm, scutellum, coleorhiza, and coleoptile.
What is a fruit?
A fruit is a fully grown fertilized ovary containing one or more seeds.
What is parthenocarpy?
Parthenocarpy is the development of fruits without fertilization.
What are the classes of fruits?
Classes include true fruits, false fruits, simple fruits, aggregate fruits, and multiple fruits.
What are dry indehiscent fruits?
Dry indehiscent fruits do not split open to release seeds, e.g., achene, nut, caryopsis.
What are dry dehiscent fruits?
Dry dehiscent fruits split open at particular lines to release seeds, e.g., follicle, legume, capsule.
What are succulent fruits?
Succulent fruits are fleshy and may be entirely or partially fleshy, e.g., drupes and berries.
How do mammals reproduce?
Mammals reproduce sexually.
What are the special reproductive organs in mammals that produce gametes?
The special reproductive organs in mammals that produce gametes are the ovaries and testis.
What does the seminal vesicle secrete?
The seminal vesicle secretes a viscous fluid containing fructose which acts as a nutrient for sperm cells.
What is the function of the prostate gland?
The prostate gland secretes an alkaline, milky-white fluid that neutralizes the acidity of the vagina.
What is the role of the penis in the male reproductive system?
The penis delivers sperm into the female reproductive organ.
What does the testis do?
The testis manufactures and stores sperm.
What is the function of the scrotal sac?
The scrotal sac protects the testis.
What is the function of the vas deferens?
The vas deferens conducts sperm from the testis to the urethra during ejaculation.
What does the urethra do in the male reproductive system?
The urethra is the passage of sperm and semen during ejaculation.
What is the role of Cowper’s gland?
Cowper’s gland produces mucus for lubrication of both the male and female urethra to ease copulation.
What are the functions of the male reproductive system?
The male reproductive system is used in the delivery of sperm into the female reproductive organ, production and storage of sperm, and secretion of male sex hormones such as testosterone.
What is the function of the uterus in the female reproductive system?
The uterus provides a suitable environment for the growth and development of the fetus and is also an area for implantation.
What are the functions of the vagina?
The vagina provides a passage for sperm to the uterus, passage of blood during menstruation, and allows passage of the fetus at birth.
What does the oviduct (fallopian tube) do?
The oviduct allows the movement of the fertilized egg towards the uterus for implantation and provides a suitable place for fertilization.
What is the function of the cervix?
The cervix contains elastic muscles which allow its expansion during birth and it serves as the gateway to the uterus.
What is the vulva?
The vulva is a collective term for the external genitalia.
What are the labia minora and labia majora?
The labia minora are the inner folds of the vulva and contain mucus-secreting glands that lubricate the vagina. The labia majora are the outer folds that cushion the vagina and help in sexual arousal.
What is the clitoris?
The clitoris is a bean-like structure located where the labia majora and labia minora meet, and it is the most sensitive part, bringing about sexual excitement in females.
What is the average length of the vagina?
The average length of the vagina is 10 cm.
What does the vagina secrete?
The vagina secretes acidic mucus, which prevents the growth of bacteria and fungi and also lubricates the vagina.
What are the general functions of the female urino system?
The general functions include production of female gametes (ovum), reception of male gametes (sperm), provision of a suitable environment for fertilization and fetus development, expulsion of the developed fetus during birth, and secretion of hormones like estrogen.
What are gametes?
Gametes are reproductive cells that cannot develop further until fertilization occurs. There are two types: male gametes (sperm cells) and female gametes (ova or egg cells).
What is the function of the acrosome in sperm?
The acrosome contains enzymes that dissolve the egg membrane for the penetration of the sperm nucleus into the egg.
What does the nucleus of a sperm contain?
The nucleus of a sperm contains genetic material responsible for the transmission of characters from the parent to the offspring.
What is the role of the middle piece of a sperm?
The middle piece contains mitochondria that provide energy for sperm movement.
What is the function of the tail of a sperm?
The tail propels the sperm forward as it swims towards the ovum.
What does the cytoplasm of a sperm do?
The cytoplasm acts as a food store for the embryo.
What is the role of the zona pellucida in fertilization?
The zona pellucida is responsible for species-restricted binding of sperm to unfertilized eggs and prevents sperm from binding to already fertilized eggs.
What is the function of the corona radiata?
The corona radiata is the external layer of cells that provides support and nourishment to the egg cell.
What happens during fertilization in man?
Fertilization occurs after copulation, where the erect penis is inserted into the vagina. The sperm travels through the cervix and uterus to the oviduct, where it may contact the egg membrane, release enzymes from the acrosome, and penetrate the egg cell. The egg membrane thickens to prevent entry of other sperm cells, and the nuclei of the sperm and egg fuse to form a fertilized egg.
What is the fertilized egg called after fertilization?
The fertilized egg is known as a zygote.
What is pregnancy?
Pregnancy (gestation) is the period from the fertilization of an ovum to birth.
What happens to the fertilized egg after fertilization?
The fertilized egg undergoes cell division by mitosis, moves down to the uterus, and becomes embedded in the lining of the uterus in a process known as implantation.
What develops between the fetus and the mother’s blood system during pregnancy?
A placenta develops, connected to the fetus by the umbilical cord.
What occurs during the zygote/germinal stage?
During the zygote/germinal stage, the single-celled zygote divides into a solid ball of cells, which then becomes a hollow ball of cells called a blastocyst. It moves down to the uterus and attaches to the lining of the mother’s uterus.
What results in the development of the placenta during implantation?
The outer cells of the blastocyst burrow into the uterus, leading to the development of the placenta.
What characterizes the embryonic stage of development?
The embryo develops within the uterus, external features like the heart, brain, and spinal cord become visible, and the arms and legs start to develop.
When does the fetal stage begin and what happens during this stage?
The fetal stage begins at the end of the 8th week after fertilization. During this stage, the fetus fills the entire uterus, sex organs become distinct, fetal movements can be felt, the brain accumulates new cells, and the lungs mature. The placenta develops further with villi extending into the uterus wall.
What are the functions of the placenta?
The placenta allows exchange of materials without mixing blood, transfers nutrients and oxygen to the fetus, removes waste products from the fetus, protects the fetus from toxins and foreign materials, acts as a barrier to certain hormones and chemicals, and provides immunity by allowing antibodies to pass to the fetus.
What is the role of the umbilical cord?
The umbilical cord connects the fetus to the placenta, delivering nutrients and oxygen to the fetus and removing waste products.
What does the amniotic sac do?
The amniotic sac, filled with amniotic fluid, protects the fetus from injury.
How does the amniotic fluid protect the fetus?
The amniotic fluid cushions and protects the fetus from mechanical forces.
How does the placenta function as an excretory organ?
The placenta removes waste products such as carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes from the fetus to the mother’s blood.
What happens during birth (parturition)?
The embryo turns head down in the uterus, the uterus contracts rhythmically, the cervix dilates, amniotic fluid passes out, and the baby is pushed through the vagina. After birth, the placenta separates from the uterus and is expelled.
How are male hormones regulated at puberty?
The hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland to release Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) for sperm production and Luteinizing Hormone (LH) which stimulates interstitial cells in the testis to release Testosterone for male secondary sexual characteristics.
What hormones control the menstrual cycle and their sequences?
The pituitary gland secretes Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH), while the ovary secretes Progesterone and Estrogen. The sequence is FSH → Estrogen → LH → Progesterone.
What is the role of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) in the menstrual cycle?
FSH causes the development of Graafian follicles in the ovaries and stimulates the production of estrogen.
What does estrogen do during the menstrual cycle?
Estrogen repairs the uterine wall after menstruation, stimulates LH production, and inhibits FSH production.
What is the function of Luteinizing Hormone (LH) in the menstrual cycle?
LH causes ovulation and stimulates the production of progesterone from the corpus luteum.
How does progesterone affect the menstrual cycle?
Progesterone maintains the uterine lining for implantation, inhibits FSH and LH production, and if fertilization does not occur, it leads to the breakdown of the corpus luteum and menstruation.
What are safe days in the menstrual cycle?
Safe days are when there is no mature ovum in the reproductive system, typically starting from the end of menstruation up to around the 18th day of a 28-day cycle.
What are fraternal twins?
Fraternal twins arise from the fertilization of two different ova by two different sperms. They may or may not be of the same sex.
What are identical twins?
Identical twins develop from one fertilized ovum that divides into two embryos, resulting in two babies that look alike and are of the same sex.
What is the role of antenatal care?
Antenatal care involves checking the pregnant woman for conditions that may harm the pregnancy, such as malaria, anemia, HIV/AIDS, and STDs, and examining urine, blood, blood pressure, baby’s position, and weight.
What does antenatal medical care allow for the mother?
Detection and prevention of early complications in pregnancy such as hypertension and pregnancy diabetes.
How does antenatal care help in managing infections for the mother?
It allows for the identification and treatment/management of infections such as HIV and Syphilis.
How does antenatal care reduce the chances of maternal deaths?
It detects and manages potential pregnancy complications.
What is one of the purposes of antenatal care related to miscarriage?
To estimate the due date for giving birth, which helps in reducing cases of miscarriage.
What kind of information does antenatal care provide to the mother and her family?
It provides information and advice for a healthy pregnancy, safe childbirth, and recovery, including care for the newborn and promotion of early exclusive breastfeeding.
How does antenatal care benefit the baby’s health?
It enables the mother to receive advice on modifiable lifestyle risks that promote the baby’s health and safety.
How does antenatal care help in preventing the transmission of diseases to the baby?
It reduces the chances of diseases like HIV/AIDS being passed on to the baby during birth.
What are some key aspects of baby care after birth?
Breastfeeding, feeding on a balanced diet, immunization, and maintaining good hygiene.
Why is breastfeeding important for a baby?
It ensures all necessary nutrients are supplied in the proper proportions and protects against constipation, diarrhea, and infections.
What can result from defaulting breastfeeding?
Increased incidences of infections, low baby weight, sudden death, and quick detachment between mother and child.
Why is feeding a baby on a balanced diet important?
It provides essential vitamins, minerals, and nutrients required for healthy growth and development.
What are the consequences of not feeding a baby a balanced diet?
Malnutrition diseases, poor growth, and in some cases, death of the baby.
What is the importance of immunization for a baby?
It protects the baby against immunizable diseases such as polio, measles, and tuberculosis.
What are the associated problems of not immunizing a baby?
Poor health and suffering from immunizable diseases, which can lead to death.
Why is maintaining good hygiene important for a baby?
It helps keep the baby free from disease-causing germs.
What problems can arise from poor hygiene in baby care?
Diseases such as fever, flu, chronic cough, stunted growth, and death.
What defines teenage pregnancy?
Pregnancy occurring when a female under the age of 20 conceives after having sexual intercourse.
What are the risks associated with teenage pregnancy and abortion?
Uterine infections, high blood pressure, fistula, over bleeding, anaemia, barrenness, damage to internal organs, stress, depression, and death of the baby or mother.
What are some methods of birth control?
Rhythmical method, coitus interruptus, use of condoms and diaphragms, vasectomy, tubal ligation, oral contraceptives, injectable contraceptives, intrauterine devices, intra-vaginal rings, and morning pills.
What is amenorrhea?
The absence of menstrual periods in a woman who is not pregnant and has missed at least 3 periods in a row.
What are some causes of amenorrhea?
Hormonal imbalance, contraceptive use, low body weight, excessive exercise, and stress.
How can excessive bleeding during menstruation be treated?
Treatment may include iron supplements, birth control pills, hormone therapy, or surgical options to remove fibroids or the uterine lining.
What is excessively painful menstruation and its causes?
It is menstruation that is excessively painful and can be caused by bacterial infections, endometriosis, uterine fibroids, or other factors.
How can excessively painful menstruation be managed?
Through anti-inflammatory medications, vitamins, and supplements like magnesium.
What is erectile dysfunction?
Difficulty getting or maintaining an erection firm enough for intercourse.
What are common causes of erectile dysfunction?
Stress, anxiety, sleep disturbances, high blood pressure, heart diseases, obesity, and more.
How is erectile dysfunction typically treated?
With drugs that stimulate blood flow to the penis, such as Viagra, Cialis, and Stendra.
What are sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)?
Diseases transmitted through sexual intercourse, caused by pathogens.
How are STDs different from STIs?
STDs manifest through signs and symptoms and develop stages, whereas STIs may not show symptoms but can still be localized to the genital area.
What are some pathogens that cause STDs and STIs?
Bacteria (e.g., Chlamydia, Gonorrhea), fungi (e.g., Candidiasis), viruses (e.g., HIV, HPV).
What are some signs and symptoms of Gonorrhea in males?
Extreme discomfort during urination, yellow discharge, swelling of the prostate glands, and blockage of the urethra.
What are symptoms of Syphilis?
Open painless wounds on skin, persistent fever, skin rash, sore throat with ulcers, swollen lymph nodes, and damage to CNS.
What are symptoms of Candidiasis?
Itchy and inflamed skin in the mouth and vagina.
What is HPV and what does it cause?
HPV is a viral infection that causes warts on the cervix, vulva, vagina, penis, and other areas, and can lead to cervical cancer.
How can the spread of STDs and STIs be prevented?
Abstaining from sexual intercourse, having sexual relations with only one partner, avoiding sharing sharp instruments, washing genitals, and using condoms.
What are common challenges faced by people living with HIV/AIDS?
Reduced immunity, depression, lack of health insurance, loss of employment, and poverty.
How can reduced immunity in HIV/AIDS patients be managed?
Through timely use of ARVs, eating a balanced diet, and avoiding re-infection.
What is the significance of the song “Alone and Frightened” by Lutaya?
It highlights the stigma and discrimination faced by HIV/AIDS patients and calls for love, care, and support for them.
