Religious Anthropology Flashcards
William Robertson Smith (1846-1894)
‘The Religion of the Semites’ (1889) => Religion evolved through Animism-Polytheism-Monotheism; Sacred and Profane; Religious rituals e.g. sacrifices and festivals, serve to reinforce social bonds, establish hierarchies of power, and mediate relationships between individuals and the divine; Kicked out of Aberdeen uni for analysing Bible as mythical text
James G. Frazer (1854-1941)
‘Golden Bough’ (1889), Cultural Evolution of Magic-Religion-Science; Magic attempts to manipulate supernatural forces through rituals and spells, religion involves reverence and worship of supernatural forces, Sympathetic Magic, Taboo and Ritual, Primitive societies attributed magical or supernatural powers to tabooed objects or practices, Modern societies gradually replaced taboo with more rational and legal forms of social control, Rituals address human needs and desires, such as fertility, protection, and healing, through symbolic actions and performances; Social Function of religion, Dying God motif, Functionalist foundations for Malinowski
Émile Durkheim (1858-1917)
‘The Elementary Forms of Religious Life’ (1912), Asserts religion as a reflection of the collective conscience which FUNCTIONS to reinforce social solidarity;
Studying totemism in Australian Aboriginal societies, he demonstrated how religious rituals and symbols function to maintain social cohesion and collective identity;
Collective Effervescence;
‘Sacred’ and ‘Profane’;
Collective Representations
Max Weber (1864-1920)
‘The Protestant Work Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism’ (1904):
Predestination: Calvinism taught the doctrine of predestination, which held that God had already determined the fate of individuals before they were born, instilling a sense of anxiety and uncertainty about one’s salvation, leading individuals to seek signs of God’s favour through worldly success and prosperity.
Divine Providence: Calvinists believed in the sovereignty of God and the notion of divine providence, which suggested that worldly success and material wealth could be interpreted as signs of God’s favour = legitimised pursuit of economic success as a means of glorifying God and fulfilling one’s religious duties.
The Calling: Calvinism emphasised the idea of the “calling” or vocation, wherein individuals viewed their worldly work as a means of serving God = encouraged a strong work ethic, diligence, and frugality, as individuals sought to fulfil their religious obligations through productive labor.
These elements helped encourage a Herderian “volksgeist” in the “spirit of Capitalism”, critiquing Marxist historical materialism, which emphasised economic factors as the primary drivers of historical change.
E.E. Evans-Pritchard (1902-1973)
Spiritual Beliefs:
Evans-Pritchard describes the Nuer belief in spirits, which they conceptualize as “kwoth.” These spirits are believed to inhabit the natural world, including trees, rivers, and animals, as well as the bodies of deceased ancestors. The Nuer believe that spirits have the power to influence human affairs and must be respected and appeased through rituals and sacrifices.
Spiritual Hierarchy:
Evans-Pritchard discusses the hierarchical structure of Nuer spirits, which includes both benevolent and malevolent beings. Benevolent spirits, such as the spirits of deceased ancestors, are believed to protect and bless the community, while malevolent spirits, such as “kwoth nhial,” are feared for their ability to bring harm and misfortune.
Relationship to Social Structure:
Evans-Pritchard examines the ways in which Nuer spiritual beliefs are intertwined with the social structure of Nuer society. He argues that the Nuer conceptualize spirits as both individuals and members of social groups, reflecting the social organization and kinship ties that govern Nuer communities. For example, the spirits of deceased ancestors are believed to continue their social roles and relationships in the spirit world, maintaining ties with their living descendants.
Ritual Practices:
Evans-Pritchard discusses the rituals and ceremonies through which the Nuer interact with spirits and seek their protection and favor. These rituals often involve offerings of food, drink, and livestock sacrifices, as well as prayers and invocations to the spirits. Evans-Pritchard emphasizes the importance of ritual specialists, known as “leop,” who mediate between the human and spiritual worlds and perform rituals on behalf of the community.
Social Control and Conflict Resolution:
Evans-Pritchard explores the role of spirits in maintaining social order and resolving conflicts within Nuer society. He suggests that the belief in spirits serves as a mechanism for social control, encouraging individuals to adhere to moral norms and ethical principles out of fear of spiritual retribution. Additionally, spirits are invoked in rituals of reconciliation and dispute resolution, helping to restore harmony and balance within the community.
Victor Turner (1920-1983)
‘The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure’ (1969) highlighted agency of rites in effecting social change
“Ritual performance” focused on the dynamic and transformative aspects of religious rituals, viewing rituals as social dramas that enact and symbolically resolve tensions, conflicts, and ambiguities within society.
“Liminality” and “communitas” to describe the transitional and egalitarian aspects of religious rituals.
“Anti-structure” challenging established social norms and hierarchies.
Talal Asad (1932-)
Asad explored the role of religion in colonial encounters and processes of cultural imperialism. He argued that colonial powers often used religion as a tool of domination and control, imposing their own religious ideologies and practices on colonized peoples while denigrating or suppressing indigenous forms of spirituality and belief. Asad’s analysis of religion and colonialism highlighted the ways in which power dynamics shape religious identities and practices in colonial and postcolonial contexts.
Postcolonial Critique:
Asad contributed to postcolonial critiques of Western representations of religion and culture, challenging Eurocentric biases and Orientalist stereotypes in the study of non-Western societies. He emphasized the need to decolonize the study of religion by centering the perspectives and voices of marginalized and subaltern communities. Asad’s postcolonial critique encouraged religious anthropologists to engage in reflexivity and self-critique, interrogating their own positionalities and assumptions in the study of religion.
