Ethnographies

Question 1

“Primitive Culture” (1871) by Edward Burnett Tylor

Question 2

“Ancient Society” (1877) by Lewis Henry Morgan

Question 3

“The Golden Bough” (1890) by James G. Frazer

Question 4

“The Division of Labor in Society” (1893) by Durkheim

Question 5

“The Protestant Work Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904) by Max Weber

Answer 5

Historical Accuracy: Critics have questioned the historical accuracy of Weber’s thesis, arguing that it oversimplifies the relationship between Protestantism and capitalism. They point out that capitalism existed in various forms prior to the Protestant Reformation and was not solely a product of Calvinist beliefs.

Methodological Issues: Some scholars have criticized Weber’s methodology, particularly his reliance on anecdotal evidence and selective historical examples to support his argument. They argue that Weber’s analysis lacks empirical rigor and fails to consider alternative explanations for the rise of capitalism.

Ignoring Non-Protestant Factors: Critics argue that Weber’s focus on Protestantism overlooks the role of other cultural, economic, and political factors in the development of capitalism. They point out that capitalism emerged in non-Protestant countries and regions as well, suggesting that religious beliefs alone cannot account for its rise.

Ignoring Catholicism and Judaism: Weber’s thesis focuses primarily on Protestantism, particularly Calvinism, as the driving force behind the spirit of capitalism. Critics argue that this neglects the role of Catholicism and Judaism in shaping economic behavior and entrepreneurial activity, particularly in regions where these religions were dominant.

Oversimplification of Religion: Some scholars argue that Weber’s characterization of Protestantism and its influence on economic behavior is overly reductionist and essentialist. They suggest that religious beliefs are complex and multifaceted, and cannot be reduced to a single causal factor in explaining economic phenomena.

Ignoring Structural Factors: Critics argue that Weber’s analysis neglects structural factors such as class relations, economic institutions, and state policies that shape the development of capitalism. They suggest that focusing solely on cultural or ideological factors obscures the broader socio-economic context in which capitalism emerges and evolves.

Question 6

“The Mind of Primitive Man” (1911) by Franz Boas

Question 7

“The Elementary Forms of Religious Life” (1912) by Durkheim

Answer 7

God is Society

Question 8

“Argonauts of the Western Pacific” (1922) by Bronisław Malinowski

Question 9

“The Andaman Islanders” (1922) by Radcliffe-Brown

Question 10

“The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies” (1925) by Marcel Mauss

Question 11

“The Diffusion of Culture” (1927) by Grafton Eliot Smith

Question 12

“Coming of Age in Samoa” (1928) by Margaret Mead

Question 13

“Patterns of Culture” (1934) by Ruth Benedict

Question 14

“The Nuer” (1940) by E.E. Evans Pritchard

Question 15

“The Chrysanthemum and the Sword” (1946) by Ruth Benedict

Question 16

“Political Systems of Highland Burma: A Study of Kachin Social Structure” (1954) by Edmund Leach

Question 17

“Custom and Conflict in Africa” (1955) by Max Gluckman

Question 18

“The Elementary Structures of Kinship” (1955) by Claude Lévi-Strauss

Answer 18

Structuralism

Question 19

“Rites of Passage” (1960) by Arnold van Gennep

Question 20

“Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo” (1966)

Question 21

“The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure “(1969) by Victor Turner

Question 22

“The Interpretation of Cultures” (1973) by Clifford Geertz

Question 23

“Women, Culture, and Society” (1974) by Michelle Rosaldo and Louise Lamphere

Question 24

“Women’s Status in Egalitarian Society: Implications for Social Evolution” (1992) by Eleanor Leacock

Answer 24

How women’s roles were often diminished =

Women often played crucial roles in subsistence activities such as gathering, horticulture, and child-rearing, which were highly valued within communal ownership societies. Adopting agriculture produces surplus goods, private property emerges, leading to the accumulation of wealth and resources by certain individuals or families, creating economic stratification. The control of surplus and property became concentrated in the hands of men, diminishing the communal and cooperative roles that women previously held.

Emergence of private property and surplus production gave rise to social classes, with a distinct separation between those who controlled resources and those who did not. This stratification often reinforced patriarchal structures, as men typically became the primary property owners and decision-makers.
As economic power concentrated in the hands of a male elite, women’s roles and contributions became less visible and less valued. Men began to dominate public and economic spheres, while women’s labor was increasingly confined to the private, domestic sphere, which was not as highly valued in the emerging class-based society.

The introduction of the fur trade among Indigenous groups in North America often marginalised women’s traditional economic roles and increased dependence on European goods and markets.

Colonisers often imposed Western gender norms and patriarchal structures on the societies they dominated. This imposition frequently led to the erosion of women’s status and authority within their communities, as colonial authorities and missionaries promoted male-dominated leadership and economic control.

New cultural and ideological constructs emerged that reinforced women’s subordination. These constructs often portrayed women as naturally suited for domestic roles and men as natural leaders and economic providers, further entrenching gender inequalities.
As economic systems evolved, the types of labor traditionally performed by women, such as child-rearing, household management, and subsistence farming, were increasingly devalued. Economic and social recognition became more closely tied to activities and roles dominated by men, such as large-scale agriculture, trade, and governance.

Question 25

Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology (2004) by David Graeber

Question 26

“Beyond Nature and Culture” (2005) by Philippe Descola

Question 27

“Imposing rights? A case study of child prostitution in Thailand” (2012) by Heather Montgomery

Question 28

The Dawn of Everything (2021) by David Graeber and David Wengrow