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Religion in society Flashcards

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1
Q

Functionalist perspective on society

structural theories

A
  • a positive function for society and for individualscreating social order and maintaining the value consensus.
  • people are completely shaped by society
  • people are socialised into society’s norms and values which helps to preserve the status quo
  • people have little free will = like puppets
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2
Q

Keyword

Value Consensus

A
  • An agreement on norms and values, tradition
  • Results in social order, harmony etc
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3
Q

functionalist theories of relgion:

socialisation (DURKHEIM)

A
  • relgion is a key function for society
  • Collective worship integrates society by providing a platform for individuals to share their values
  • this reaffirms moral bonds as individuals comes to be united into a sense of commitment/belonign to that group
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4
Q

functionalist function of religion:

The sacred & profane

DURKHIEM

A
  • He believes sacred symbols all perform essential functions of uniting believers e.g. the cross = the key feature of religion is a distinction between the sacred and the profane not a belief in God
  • sacred are those things we set apart as extraordinary, which inspire awe & wonder.
  • profane are those things considered mundane and ordinary daily routines.
  • to him, the sacred enhances the collective sentiments of the profane areas of life
  • E.G. eventhough the Bible is a sacred text it is a profane object which individuals use to strengthen belief systems.
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5
Q

function of religion

the collective conscious

DURKHEIM

A
  • A shared way of understanding and behaving in the world.
  • The collective consciousness binds individuals together and creates social integration
  • Religion provides basic categories such as time (E.G. ideas about a creator)
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6
Q

Weaknesses of durkhiem

MESTROVIC (2011) Postmodernist

A

Durkheim’s ideas cannot be applied to contemporary society- increasing diversity has fragmented the collective conscience- no single version of the truth

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7
Q

function of religion

psychological functions

malinoswki

agrees w durkheim

A

religion promotes social solidarity.
- He identifies two ways in which relgion does this, helping them cope with emotional stress:

  1. Where the outcome is important but uncontrollable and thus uncertain
  2. At times of life crises = events such as birth, marriage death etc. changes social groups (religion helps minimise disruption/ makes them feel at ease) E.G. funerals reinforces solidarity giving the comfort to the bereaval by denying the fact of death
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8
Q

Giving and value meaning

PARSONS

Supports Malinoswki

A

Religion helps people adjust to uncontrollable events

  • He identifies two essential functions that relgion performs:
    1. It creates and legitmates society’s central values = which serves to promote value consensus Eg. Protestantism in USA has sacralised the core American
    values – meritocracy, self-discipline and individualism.
  1. it is the primary source meaning = religion provides answers to such questions. E.G. expalining suffering that will be rewareded in Heaven.
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9
Q

Bellah - A civil religion

Americanism

A
  • religion unifies society (like Parsons). This is important in multi-faith societies
  • E.G. America is unified by Civil religion.
  • E.g. American coins remind usuers ‘in God we trust’
  • This civil religion involves loyalty to a
    nation-state and a belief in God equates to being a true American
  • Civil religion in America is expressed through rituals, symbols and beliefs;
    a) Singing the National Anthem
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10
Q

Evaluation: functionalism

A
  • The funtionalist perspective tends to emphaise the positive contributions of religion to society and ignores the dysfunctional aspects.
  • Church attendance is declining in most western societies. So how can relgion socialise the majority into morality if only a minority is religious. (SECULARISATION)
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11
Q

Marxists theories of religion

  1. Lenin ideas of spiritual gin
A

” Religion is a ‘spiritual gin’ given to the masses to confuse them of their place in society… Religion creates a ‘mysical fog’ ..ensuring the proletariat do not rise up and overthrow the bourgeioise”

  • This manipulation helps maintain the status quo and inhibits radical social change.

PSA: Spiritual Gin: an intoxicant given to the masses by the ruling class to confuse them and keep them in their place. = they cant see things for what the actually are.

evaluation: new age religion - people are trying to find themselves for themeselves - using relgion as mean of empowerment as opposed as means of power

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12
Q

Marxist theory

Religion as ideology - DIVINE RIGHTS

AO2 TO LENIN

A
  • The role of religion is to legitimise inequality an uphold the dominant ruiling class ideology
  • A way relgion does this is through the concept of ‘the divine rights of kings’ = if a citizen disobeys the king, They disobey God = they are rightfully appointed by God
  • UK STILL HAS A MONARCHY - SOCIETY STAYING THE SAME
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13
Q

religion and alienation

Marx

A

Marx states:
‘Religion is the opium of the people, it is the sign of the opressed creature’

  • Religion acts as an opiate to dull/distract people from their true source of their suffering.
  • it promises rewards in the afterlife, as earthly rewards (prestige, wealth, status) cannot offer as a solution to misery on earth.
  • Religion fails to deal with class exploitation it just legitimises it
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14
Q

AO2 TO LENIN

Caste and the legitimation of inequality

A

Traditionally, the system give many privileges on the upper castes while sanctioning repression of the lower castes by privileged groups.

Karma teaches individuals that if they behave well (like praying/being submissive) they will be reincarnated to a higher caste.

As the w/c believe that the caste system is God given this encourages them not to challenge their authority so that they can avoid conflict within society. This brings the w/c a sense of hope that they will be rewarded in the afterlife if they behave well, allowing them to cosumes the ‘spiritual gin’ (lenin)

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15
Q

althusser marxist - see sheet

A
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16
Q

Feminist view of religion

A
  1. Feminists see society as patriarchal male dominated.
  2. Some Feminists see religion as an institution that reflects inequality.
  3. Beliefs function as patriarchal ideology that legitimates thesubordination of women.
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17
Q

Evidence of Patriarchy

A

- Religious organisations
ARMSTRONG
organisations are dominated by men even though more women participate in them.
Eg Catholicism forbid female priests.
This exclusion is evidence of the marginalisation of women

- Sacred texts
They largely follow the actions of male Gods/prophets and written/interpreted by men.
Stories reflect anti-female stereotypes eg. Genesis Christian story-Eve causes humanity to fall from grace and be expelled from the Garden of Eden. = suggest that women cant be trusted and need to be taimed

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18
Q

evidence against paitrachy

El Sadawi

A

a) Religion oppresses but was not the root cause of female subordination.
b) It is the result of patriarchal types of society coming into existence over the years.
c) Patriarchy began to re-shape religion - men reinterpreted the teachings and beliefs to favour men.
d) The rise of monotheism (belief in one God) legitimates power over women.

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19
Q

RELIGION as a CONSERVATIVE FORCE

A

Religion can be seen as a conservative force in two ways;
1) ]upholds traditional beliefs about the way society should be organised- defending traditional customs, institutions and moral views and roles.

2) It stabilises society and maintains the status quo- it functions to conserve or preserve things as they are.

This view of religion, as maintaining social stability, is
held by Functionalists, Marxists and Feminists.

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20
Q

Functionalists – Religion and
consensus

is religion a conservative force ?

A
  • Functionalists see religion as a conservative force as it maintains social stability and prevents the
    disintegration of society.
  • It promotes value consensus reducing the opportunity for people to pursue their own selfish interests at the expense of others. It helps people cope with potentially disruptive stresses.
  • has a physcological function
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21
Q

is religion a conservative force ?

Marxists
Religion and
capitalism

A
  • Marx sees religion as a conservative ideology that
    prevents change.
  • It legitimates or disguises exploitation and inequality.
  • It creates false class consciousness in the working
    class and prevents revolution- maintaining the
    stability of capitalist society.
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22
Q

is religion a conservative force

Feminists
Religion and
patriarchy

A
  • Feminists see religion as a conservative force
    because it acts as an ideology that legitimates
    patriarchal power     and maintains women’s
    subordination     in the family and wider society.
  • opportunities for women are dismissed/looked down upon
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23
Q

is religion a conservative force?

Religions beliefs

2 types

A

1.Moral issues :
- They mayoppose change that would allow people more freedom in their personal and sexual relationships.
Eg. Catholicism has strict beliefs regarding
abortion & divorce. It opposes gay marriage and condemns homosexuality.

2.family values:
- Most religions will uphold family values that supports the patriarchal domestic division of labour.
EG. Church of England: in traditional marriage
ceremony the bride vows to “love, honour and obey” the groom. whilst the groom only needs to “love and honour.”
This promotes the traditional belief that the man should be the head.

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24
Q

WEBER

CALVINIST BELIEFS

A
  • Predestination
  • Divine Transcendent
  • Ascetism
  • the idea of a vocation/calling

the route of contemporay capitalism

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25
Q

calvinists beleifs

PREDESTINATION

enables change within modern capitalism

A
  • God had predetermined which souls would be saved – the elect – and those who would not.
  • This was decided even before birth. Individuals are powerless to change this decision- either through their deeds (Pilgrimage) or through faith (as believed by Lutherans)- it is fixed and already made by God.
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26
Q

calvinists beliefs

DIVINE
TRANSCENDENCE

enables change within modern capitalism

A
  • God is far above the world and so incomparably greater than any mortal- no human could claim to know his will.
  • When combined with predestination, this causes Calvinists “salvation panic”(Knowing that there is nothing that they can do in order to be savedmakes them panic and worry that they will go to hell.)
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27
Q

calvanists beliefs

ASCETICISM

enables change within modern capitalism

A
  • This refers to abstinence (going without), self-discipline and self-denial.
  • E.G. Monks lead such an existence- rejecting luxury items and wearing simple clothes.
  • They would devote themselves to God and a life of prayer.
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28
Q

Religion and social change

A
  • Marx argues that economic/material factors are driving force of social change.
  • religion has a DUAL CHARACTER = challenge status quo/prevents social change
  • Weber argued that this alone cannot change – cultural factors are also important in bringing about change (beliefs of Calvinism)

‘Religion helps people adapt to adverse events and circumstances and so can help to maintain social stability’

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29
Q

Religion and Social Change
Social Protest

BRUCE

A
  • BRUCE: Like Weber he is interested in the relationship between religion and social change
  • He refers to 2 examples of religiously inspired protest movements in the USA that tried to change society;
    1) American Civil Rights Movement
    2) The New Christian Right
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30
Q

BRUCE

The American Civil Rights Movement

eveidence for social changd

A
  • a nonviolent social movement aimed at ending legalised racial segregation and discrimination in America.
  • Religion provided moral guidance and support for the civil rights movement, for their oppression - religious organizations playing crucial roles promoting social change. - provided peaceful protest this was done by:
  • Taking the moral high ground: Black clergy challenged the hypocrisy of white clergy who advocated “love thy neighbor” but supported racial segregation.
  • Churches provided spaces for meetings, prayer, and fostered unity among activists.
  • X: Takes too much of a positive stance - in reality religion could be a negative outcome - New Christian Right - might be a result to conservative forces
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31
Q

BRUCE

The New Christian Right

A
  • Are in opposition of a liberal/secular American society and wish to take America ‘back to God’ and make abortion, homosexuality, and divorce illegal.
  • They advocate a society premised upon traditional family (nuclear) and gender roles
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32
Q

neo-marxists

Liberation theology
Engels & Gramsci

religion and social change

A
  • they believe that the purpose of christianity is to free the oppressed from the opressors.
  • Engels & Gramsci agree that religion is a ‘dual character’ = it inhibits change but also can encourage it. This contrasts with the deterministic view held by Marxist
  • This means that religion can challenge the status quo as well as support it by enlightening workers to see through the ruling class hegemony by offering a better vision of the world
  • These clergy were called ‘organic intellectuals’– support them in their quest for change.
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33
Q

Liberation theology

Millenarian movements Engles

social change

A
  • Religion raises the hope of a better afterlife, creates the desire to change things and to improve situation on earth = life free from sin, death and corruption.
  • Engles argues that the millenarian group represents the first awakening of ‘proletarian self-consciousness’ = acted like organic intellectuals who help raise awareness of the oppressed.
  • often appealed to the poor to improve colonial situations = where poliitical dimension changes
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34
Q

neo (new) -marxsim

Gramsci – religion and hegemony

ADDED BLOCH SMIMILAR views

A
  • Hegemony = ideological domination.
  • Gramsci was interested in the way religion is used by the ruling class to maintain control.
  • He also notes, however, that hegemony is not always guaranteed.
  • Therefore he says religion has a dual character – they are aware of it, however, they are also aware of their material conditions - so they conform to the system for survival - can’t revolt.
  • The oppression experienced by the proletariat is more a choice, as opposed of the organic intellectuals. - helped build rebeliion/protest

BLOCH
- relgion had a dual character - justfying inequality but aslo enourgaining social change
* in the principle of hope, bloch argued that relgions that did offer people a utopian vision of heaven on earth
* offered a way for indiviudlas to change society for the better

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35
Q

religion and social conflict

Billings

A
  • He compares class struggle in two communities of w/c protestants
    1. Militant miners
    2. Textile workers

Found Three ways in which relgion is supported/ challenged by hegemony
1. LEADERSHIP: miners had the leadership of th eorganic intellectuals, so they helped to convert miners to the union cause. Textile = lacked leadership
2. ORGANISATION: miners use independent churches to hold meetings. textiles = lacked spaces
3. SUPPORT: the churches kept miner morale high (through prayer/group).

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36
Q

Religious organisations

4 type

A
  • They use typology to categorise & analyse the 4 different religius organisations
    1. CHURCHES
    2. SECTS
    3. CULT
    4. DENOMINATION
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37
Q

RELGIOUS ORGANISATION:

Cults

A
  • more align to alternatives to traditional relgion and focused on individual developments
  • WORLD-AFFIRMING = wallis - in terms of social class = cults appeals to the already affluent + who wants to become successful = w/c
  • tolererant of others faiths
  • dont claim anybody monoplogy,
  • exclusive
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38
Q

denomination

A
  • Are large and established religious bodies that have a hierarchy of religious leaders.
  • Most denominational members are born into and grow up within the body.
  • Examples of Christian denominations include the Roman Catholic Church.
  • dont claim exclusive monopoly truths
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39
Q

church

A
  • closely connected to the state = King Charles III is the Head of the Church of England.
  • associated with christianity
  • accepts norms & values
  • They claim a monopoly over the truth
  • born into the church (abscribed)
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40
Q

sects

A
  • are smaller committed members.
  • high level of commitment
  • WORLD-REJECTING MOVEMENTS
  • they claim a monopoly over the truth and are often hostile to other religious organisations
  • mainstream society/religious bodies
    in terms of social class - recruits the most disadvantaged - requires them to give up their previous life - also appeals to the relative deprived m/c students
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41
Q

viewed

Wallis

religious organisations

A

highlights two characteristics
1. How they see themeselves:
They claim that interpretation of the faith is the only legitimate or correct one. Denominations and cults accpets many valid interpretaions.
2. How they are seen by wider society:
Churches and denominations are seen as respectable and legitimate, wheras sects and cults are seen as deviant and potentially dangerous.

42
Q

Stark & Bainbridge

Sects + Cults

A
    • sects result from schisms (splits) in existing organisation. They break away from the churches. = promise other-wordly benefits (e,g. a place in heaven) to those suffering from economic deprivation.
      - HEAVEN’S GATE IS AN EXAMPLE OF THIS: It persuaded 38 followers to commit suicide in belief that their souls would ascend to a spaceship hidden behind a comet
    • cults = promise this worldly benefits (e.g. good health) to more prosperous individuals who are suffering
      - i.e. the moonies (They identified the leader, ‘Moon’ as the messiah who implants God’s love in his followers = they are acceptive of new viewpoints/religion)
43
Q

WALLIS

World-rejecting NRMs

groups based on their relationship to the outside world

A
  • Similar to Troeltsch’s definition of sects. = wants radical change
  • critical of the outside world
  • members live communally and have restricted contact of the world
  • Moral panics about brain-washing
  • NRMs usually appeal more to young people and this heightens the fear of parents who see their children as being captured.
    E.G. the moonies have conservative moral codes
44
Q

WALLIS

World-accommodation NRMS

groups based on their relationship to the outside world

A
  • breakaway from existing mainstream churches/denominations
  • neither accept/ reject the world as they focus in religion rather than worldly matters
  • Members of such groups (e.g. “born again Christian” groups) usually live “normal” lives.
  • E.G. Neo-Pentecostalists believe that other Christian religions have lost the holy sprit.
  • Wallis point out that a counter culture developed as they avoided adulthood (disenfranchised youths)
  • they provided radical politics (e.g. barriers for young people) NRMs offered young people up more idealistic way of living
45
Q

WALLIS

World-affirming NRM’s

groups based on their relationship to the outside world

A
  • differ from all other religious groups & lack some of the conventional features, such as collective worship
  • accepts/affirm the world as it is (most are cults)
  • E.G. Scientology
  • Can be seen as a force of social change, moving away from tradition but it’s more people-centred
  • These have grown as they provided a sense of identity and techniques that promise success in the world. (E.G. meditation)
46
Q

Evaluation: new religious movements

A
  • it is not clear whether he is categorising them according to the movements teachings or individual members beliefs’
  • overestimate the level of value consent
  • Stark and Bainbridge argue that religious organisations should be distinguished only by the degree of conflict or tension between the religious group and wider society.
47
Q

reason why..

Explain the growth of religious movements

A

Individual may choose to join a NRM as it:
- Encourages people to comply
- Allows people to live from tradition and to be more individualistic

REASONS ARE:
- Marginality
- Relative deprivation
- social change

48
Q

Marginality

the growth of NRMS

A
  • exisiting religious insitutions has pushed indivuals to the margins of society - as a result look for other explanation for their position
  • Weber argued that NRMs developed as a response to the marginalisation of individuals.
  • sects offer as a solution to this problem for their disadvantages in society - ‘theodicy of dis privilege’ = An religious explanation and justification for their suffering.
  • Often linked to rapid social changes and attitudes in society - e.g. civil rights movement, millenarian movements
49
Q

Relative Deprivation

the growth of religious movements

A
  • refers to the subjective sense of being deprived
  • e.g. m/c ppl may be spiritually deprived
  • turn to sect for a sense of community
  • Wallis argued that deprivation in society had led to individuals looking to RMs for spiritual enrichment
  • frustrated so sought personal fufilment
  • turn away from religion - seek nrms for explanations
  • Stark and Bainbridge argues that world rejecting sects offer to the deprived compensator that they need for the rewards they are denied.
50
Q

Wilson + Bruce

Social change

the growth of new religious movements

A

helps them to social changes
* Wilson argues the growth of nrms are a result of changing norms and values
* indiviudals form nrms when traditional religion fails to fufil the needs of its memebers
- may turn to sects. - relects their changing views of society

led to the growth of technological advancement, extension of youth etc

Bruce also sees the growth of sects and cults today as a response to the social changes involved in modernisation and secularisation = people are less attracted to traditional churches. Instead people prefer cults = less demanding - adapt to modern society e.g. same-sex marraiges

51
Q

Dynamic of Sects and NRMs

Niebuhr

A
  • Niebuhr - world-rejecting movements exist because of schism = usually because of a disagreement in religious doctrine.
  • sects a short lived. This is because:
    1.The second generation:
    born into the sect lacks commitment
    2.Death of a leader:
    Either causes the collapse of the sect

Wilson argues that some sects** do not move through a cycl**e but instead become established sects e.g. mormons/amish - Both successfully socialisetheir children into a a high level of commitment by keeping them seperate to the rest of the world
- through the rise of gloablisation this makes it harder to sepearte themeseleves from the rest of the world. = RELFECTS WHAT niebur says - short lived sects will be enhanced

we can criticse wilson- through technology can be used to further one’s commitmentment to religion

52
Q

The Sectarian Cycle: Stark and
Bainbridge

A

1. Schism:
There is tension between deprived members of a church and privileged ones. The deprived form a sect.
2. Initial Fervour:
A great tension between the sects beliefs and wider society.
3. Denominotionalism:
The ‘Protestant Ethic’ effect occurs and the coolness of the second generation disappears.
4. Establishment:
The sect becomes more world accepting and tension reduces. The less privileged members break away to create a new sect

53
Q

Growth Of New Age Movements (NAMs)

Heelas

A

He said there are two themes that characterise New Age:
1. SELF-SPIRITUALITY:

Individuals have turned away from traditional ‘external’ religions (islam, christianity) and instead look inside themesleves to find spirituality. = Weber - becomes disenchantment as structures are weakening people become more rational - as a result they move awy from relgion - resulting in individualisation and autonomy

2. Detraditionalisation:

Rejects the spiritual authority of traditional sources such as priests/sacred texts. Values personal experience/discovering the truth for ourselves. = links to marginaisaltion

E.G. Astrology, Meditation are spiritualy that act as a compensate to Everyday life.

Functionalist would be unsettled of this, as they are moving away from tradition. Anomie occurs due to wide fragmentation of religious beliefs = looses its value consesus.

54
Q

Gender and religion

Reason for gender and religiosity:

A

Womens are more likely to:
- Express greater intrest in religion and have a firmer belief in God
- involve themeselves in rituals and worship
- Join NRMs and NAMs (BRUCE)
REASONS FOR RELIGIOSITY:
- Risk, socialsation and gender roles:
- paid work
- women and the new age :
- women compensators and sects :

SEE NOTION NOTES

55
Q

Miller

Risk, Socialisation and Gender Roles

A
  1. Miller - gender differences in risk taking behaviour. Men are more risk-averse they are more likely to not adhere to religion compared to women.
    * Women are socialised into being more passive obedient and caring. Those with these qualities are more attracted to religion - eg passiveness/obedience are required to faith.
    * Gender roles mean women are more likely to work part time which means that they have more time for religious practices.
    * EVALUATION: funct. ENSURES THE reproductive roles for women and values consensus of expectstion
    * feminist may criticie this ideas bc relgion is patrichal - fc - safe place away from risk but actually - rlgion provides a continuation of risk male doniminaiton - preventing females to recognise their oppression.
56
Q

WOODHEAD

Women and the New Age

A
  • Women are more associated with nature and spiritual healing. They may be more attracted to new age movements and ideas than men.
  • Woohhead suggested that women are more attracted to New Age movements bc they experince double alienation - the family fails to give them a sense of identity, and they feel dissatied within their limited role as a housewife
  • NAM’s offers a chance to express their authentic rather than merely acting out roles. This means that the position of women in society is changing - ambition and aspiration (sue sharpe).
  • NAMs offer women a space to become more in tune with their real ‘calling’.

Criticism:
* Functionalisms would DESPISE this. Parsons and Murdock - core/vital functions of the family are jeopardised by female involvement in NAMs and a move away from the fundamental of traditional religion.
* NAMs encourage women to fulfil their ambition and step away from the constraints traditional gender roles impose. This weakens collective conscience, evokes anomie, disrupts socialisation etc

57
Q

Bruce

Women, Compensators and Sects

A
  • Bruce - more women than men involved in sects bc it offer compensation for social deprivation which is more common amongst women which explain their high level of sect membership.
  • social deprivation - women are likely to be poor and therefore join a sect. to numb the pain of this experience. This could be because *women live to serve men as a second-class citizen and thus find society a difficult place to be.
  • *Like - feminist. This is because they are less traditional and offer women a space to escape patriarchy and remove themselves from oppressive expectations. A sense of empowerment that traditional religion does not allow for.
    Criticism:
  • Dislike/like - functionalists. Malinowski would aruge that sects provide a psychological function to women - a space for them to vent and remove the burden of everyday living and then continue to be exploited (WBT)
58
Q

stats as to why women are more religious

A
  • ## For example, Church census records show that congregations were divided 57% women and 43% men (and this gender division had remained quite consistent for some years).
59
Q

Aune = reasons for the decline in women and religion

A
  • Fertility levels = more women are having children later. older women are not presented at church
  • family diversity: single parents/cohabitation = all discourage the church and religion = may feel alienated.
  • Sexuality: homosexuality is not really accepted by the church.
60
Q

Evaluation of Gender and religioisty = Woodhead

+ critism

A

depends on how they engage in religion. She indentifies 3 types of modern women:

  • HOME-CENTRED: priortise the home traditions christian values
  • JUGGLER: Balance family commitment and female employment (alternative spirtual)
  • WORK-CENTRED: more secular, abondons church as it doesnt fit with demanding work schedules

However:
- his study doesnt specify that we live in a secular religion and a different movement (E.G. NAMs offers to abondon presrcibed gender roles and allow women to touch with their authentic self)= acts a form of espacism.
- therefore there is still religion, just in a secular form

61
Q

Pryce + bruce

Religioisty and Social groups

ETHNIC differences

A

Reason
1. CULTURAL TRANSISTION:
new migrants looks for familar agmonst the unfamilair
- Religion enables the ease of the transition into the new culture by providing support and a sense of community for minority groups.
- Once a group makes the transition into the wider society, religion loses it role/meaning.
- PRYCE= examined how pentecostalism acted as a way of helping some memebers of the Afro-carribean communities to cope with low pay and racial discrimination = enables them to fit in.

Cultural defence:
- BRUCE: Religion offers a support for hostile, uncertain environments (sense of belonging). It preserves one’s culture/ language = act as a way of coping with their oppression. e.g. black carribean experience in the establsihed (white majory) church
- Many black christian found that white churches werent as actively welcoming = so they turned to black-led pentecostal churches catering to specific lamguages and nationalities.
- through singing based on hope = ‘wade in the water’- preseerving culture - also emphaises on money = prosperity churches - white garmet - contrast with catholic churches like hymns

62
Q

religiousity and ethnicirty

Marginalisation

A

Minority ethnic groups are arguably more marginalised and relatively deprived than the White majority
* Weber - ‘theodicy of deprivilege’ may explain higher levels of religiosity.
* Stark and Bainbridge - Religion as compensation for marginalisation and relative deprivation.
* Rastafarianism in African- Caribbean communities in 1970s, particularly among men. It is seen as a form of ‘resistance to racism’
* African-Caribbeans face higher levels of unemployment and most likely to experience racism; Black boys are 7x more likely to be expelled from school

63
Q

r = e

Family
Pressures

A

Johal (1998) - many young British Asians have forged a new hybrid identity called ‘Brasian‘ (blending British and Asian culture). Selecting elements of their parents traditional culture and that of British culture - mixing a religious identity with a British identity.

64
Q

supports cultural defence - stats

Religion and Ethnicty

Bierely

A
  • “Black christians were more likely to see relgion as important and attend a place of worship”- Bierely
65
Q

Religioisity and social change

Reason for age differences

A
  1. THE AGEING EFFECT:
  2. THE COHORT EFFECT:
  3. SECULARISATION:
66
Q

HEELAS

  1. THE AGEING EFFECT:

age and religion

A
  • This is the view that poeple turn to religion as they get older.
  • HEELAS argues that poeple become more intrested in spirituality as they age. (links to calvin salvation panic) = The olders become more concerned about the afterlife/ repentance of past misdeeds. - closer to death
  • As a result, more likely to go to church

THEORECTICAL PERSPECTIVES
Functionalist would agree with this as they believe that they are more likley to feel at peace with relgion.
Specifically, Parson, would argue that when individuals are faced with life events sch as death, religion can act a source of comfort and thus gives meaning/value.

67
Q
  1. The period/cohort effect

age and religion

A
  • People born during a particular period may be more or less likely to be religious because of the particular events lived through, such as war/social change. = feel unsafe, so ask for guidance
  • This is why some countries are more religious than others

THEORECTICAL:
- This can be explained wth BRUCE: Civil religion = provided guidance/liberation and hope.- palestians believe that they died a maytr death (a person who is killed because of their religious)
- HOWEVER Marxist would say that this enables the base and superstucture relationship as it provides the proletariat to cosume lenins idea of the spiritiual gin = its more of the scenario the individual is in rather than their age e.g.

68
Q

BECKFORD

  1. SECURALISATION

AGE + RELIGION

A
  • As relgion declines in importance, each genertaion becomes less relgious that the one before it
  • Younger poeple are less relgious than older.
  • BECKFORD describes this as the ‘virtual collaspe of religious socialistaion’ = this is where parent (of the same faith) are 50% likely to raise their child to be a churchgoer than as an adult. = more likely to see the ageing population. (1 in 3 aged 65 and over)

THEORECTICAL:
allowing people to be woke - people are realising/beginning to question faith - tune in to themeselves e.g. gay, legalisation of drugs
- Religion provides an alienation through the mystcial fog/ the fasle class consciousness, so if we turn away to become more secular, this enables individuals to attach more meaning to their life. (religious tradition doesnt label them)
- similarly, Gramsci and Engles idea of religion acting as a ‘dual character’ supports this as it also gives people the opportunity to follow their on rules = creates social change

69
Q

Secularisation

A
  • Wilson describes it as “the process whereby religious thinking, practices and institutions lose social significance”.
  • Weber talks about a process of rationalisation and the disenchantment of the world. = he argues that changes in wider society have led to religion to have less significance. = greater scientific understanding reduces reliance upon religion for answers. (the Enlightenment period began this process)
70
Q

SHINER ON SECULARISATION

Supports wilson

A
  • He identifies indicators of secularisation:
    1. Religion/symbols lose their prestige e.g. the cross has been reappropriated e.g. on merch - clothing
    2. Relgion disengages from how socity operates - disentachment
    3. scientific/rational ways of thinking has taken over religious ways.
71
Q

Criticism of secularisation theory

A
  • religion is not decling but simply changing its form - e.g. there has been a rise in alternative forms of spirituality such as New Age practices - these practice are often a blend of relgious traditions (secular) but still fufil individual needs
  • evidene of falling church attendence ignores peoples who believe but dont go - e..g many indivuals ezpresses their spirtutuality through private practics such as prayers mediations, personal rituals
72
Q

Religion, renewal and choice

A
  • Focuses on whether religion is declining or changing
  • Davie: ‘obligation to consumption’ = in the past people were obligated to have religious ceremonies in the church, where as now it is a matter of choice. E.G. adults can be baptised later on in life.
  • Religion is simply taking a more privatised form. People are reluctant to belong to an organisation (this is because of an dis-embedded religion = some will engage in some parts
  • Davie call this ‘believing without belonging’.
73
Q

nam - spiritual market

Is religion declining or simply changing?

Voas and Crockett

A
  • Voas and Crockett: Neither believeing nor belonging.
  • The new age movement is probably best characterised as a ‘spiritual market’ from which individuals are free to pick and mix those spiritual beliefs/practices which they feel best helps them achieve piece of mind.
74
Q

could be used as analysis for secularisation

Postmodern religion

A
  • There are a number of feautures of postmodern society that are changing the nature of religion
    1. Globalisation and Media Influence:
    • Increased movement of beliefs driven by media and information technology is leading to the disembedding of religion from physical churches, as seen with televangelism, resulting in the de-institutionalisation of religion and allowing individuals to adopt religious concepts independently.
  1. Re-enchantment of the World:
    • Contrary to the idea that religion is declining,there is a renewed interest in unconventional beliefs, practices, and spirituality. This shows a move away from purely rational thinking towards exploring diverse spiritual expression
75
Q

Sacralisation

A

Importance of traditional religious norms , values and practices.

Opposite of secularisation

76
Q

Weakness of new age

A

Bruce challenges the idea that religion is changing and not declining.

He says we can’t classify NAMs a new religion due to:

  • Weak commitment: most people dabbled(in and out) in New Age but not committed.
  • Socialisation of the next generation: For a belief system to survive it must be passed down to the next generation. E.G The Kendal Project- children shared beliefs.
77
Q

What is the Kendal Project

Used for religion, choice and renewal.

A
  • The aim of the project was to look at the existence of secularisation and sacuralisation being presented at the same time
  • Wanted to look at religion in a holistic sense.
  • Holistic domain looks alternative spiritual practices such as reflexology
  • However it’sdifficult to find all alternative spirituality in Kendal becauseit’s done at home (in a private domain) = practices are not advertise.
78
Q

Religion Market Theory (aka rational choice theory)

0

A
  • Stark & Bainbridge: people are naturally religious. It is human nature to seek rewards and avoid costs.
  • The cycle of renewal: they describe a perpetual cycle throughout history, with some religions declining and others attracting new members. (E.G. when established church decline, they leave a gap in the markets for sects/cults to attract new followers)

HOWEVER, Bruce argues that S + B misrepresent secularisation theory. The theory does not claim there was that everyone will become atheists. It simply claims that religion is in a long term decline

79
Q

Hadden

Supply-led Religion

A

Highlighted by the growth of televangelism. They preach to thousands and their message is one of prosperity. They compete for consumers and see themeselves on a selling a product.

80
Q

Existential security

Norris and Inglehart

A
  • Norris and Inglehart believe that it’s the feeling that survival is secure enough that it can be taken for granted.
  • There are higher demands of religion in poorer societies because they face life threatening risk such as diseases which makes them remain religious and secure as opposed to western counties where secularisation has increased.
  • Marxist would add & say that this promotes ideological manipulation, it conditions people to not challenge religion if we feel financially insecure.
81
Q

Religion in a global context:

FEATURES OF RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM

A

FEATURES OF RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM:
1. Authoritative sacred text: Aldridge argues that all texts are interpreted and that means that fundamentalists hold true interpretation of the Bible, they ignore other intrepetations involving metaphors
2. Use of modern technology: Fundamentalists oppose modern culture but will use technology, the internet and weapons to achieve their goals.e.g. online church services

82
Q

TWO TYPES OF FUNDAMENTALISTS: (christian and islamic responses)

BRUCE

A

Bruce use this to criticise Giddens: some FUNDAMENTALSIT is a reaction to the insecurity and percieved threats brought by globalisation

  1. In the west: New Christian right this is a response to change within society e.g. the movemts towards gay people and abortion
  2. In the developing world: Iranian Revolution 1979 - this was a response to western values being imposed by capitalist powers.
83
Q

Secular Fundamentalism:

A

Davie argues that fundamentalism may be a secular response to changes in modern society.

84
Q

RELGION AND CONFLICT - global context

CLASH OF CIVILLISIATION:

HUNTINGTON

+ EVALUATION = WEAKNESS

A
  • He believes there are civilisations of different cultures/religions that are in conflict/clash with each other e.g. like Islam vs Judiasm - Paletsine vs Isreal = different values and identity = his theory has some releveance
  • globalisation increases interactions between civilisations - increasing old conflicts re-emerging
  • re-awakening the ‘us and them’ ideolology = ‘us’ ‘capitalist’ world - them = communist
  • weakness, However, this is too simplistic. JACKSON sees Huntington’s work as an example of orientalism - a western ideology that stereotypes Eastern nations. .- seen as ‘other’ (them vs. us)
  • We live in a multi-faith society so this suggests that we can live in a peaceful society.
85
Q

RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALSISM IS A RESPONSE TO:

POSTMODERNITY - Castells

religion in a global context

A
  • Postmodern society brings freedom of choice and uncertainty.
  • Similarly, Castells distinguishes two responses to postmodernity one of them being;
    1. Resistance identity: a defence reaction of those who feel threatened and retreat into fundamentalist. = LINKS TO MALINOSWKI
86
Q

RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALSISM IS A RESPONSE TO:

MODERNITY: Giddens

religion in a global context

A
  • Fundamentalist that are threatened by modernity (goes against traditional values) = they feel the **need to defend themeslevse **
  • Giddens argues fundamentalism produces dogmatic beliefs (when you accept something as the entire truth). This provides certainty in an uncertain world.
87
Q

RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALSISM IS A RESPONSE TO:

COSMOPOLIATINISM: GIDDENS - postmodernists

religion in a global context

A
  • GIDDENS
  • They use modern methods to express beliefs such as televangelism
  • Cosmopolitanism is tolerant/open-minded, constantly modifying beliefs. = Giddens calls this reflexive thinking.
88
Q

COSMOPLOISTISM - CRTICISMS

A

Beckford criticises Giddens, Bauman and castells:
- Fixated on fundamentalism ignoring important developments
- Giddens Lumps all types of fundamentalism together ignoring the differences - christiaity to hindu-fundamentalsim

89
Q

types of RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALSISM

MONOTHEISM: BRUCE

religion in a global context

A
  • BRUCE sees fundamentalism as being confined to monotheistic religions believing in a almighty single God. = monoploy of truth/infalliable They follow sacred texts which lays down specific rules.
  • Polytheistic religions such as Hinduism, are unlikely to be fundamentalists. - room for interpetations/debates
90
Q

Ultra-nationalism

nanda

A
  • The success in the global market is increasingly attributed to the superiority of ‘Hindu values’ - that Hinduism is the essence of Indian culture and identity.
  • ‘our people are not perfect, but our culture is superior to others’.
  • Hinduism has becomes a civil religion (Bellah)
91
Q

prt1 God and Globalisation:

NANDA

A
  • As societies and religions become increasingly closer to one another, there is potential for relgious conflict, diversity and change.
  • NANDA: examines the role of Hinduism (85% of the population) is legitimising both the rise of a new Hindu ‘ultra-nationalism’ and the economic prosperity of the Indian Middle class - seen as fashionable to become religious
  • Due to globalisation - it has created a prosperous, educated m/c ppl in inida working in sectors like IT etc - MAJORITY OF THIS CLASS believes in the supernatural - atrracted ‘low status’ villages God and by the poor - seen as being more responsive to people’s needs than the traditional Hindu ‘great gods
92
Q

NANDA - global conetxt -

prt2 Hinduism, Consumerism and the middle class:

relgion has a place in globalisation - wealth balancing relgion

A
  • Sherejects poverty and existential security theory(Norris and Englehart) as an explanation because they are not poor.
  • She alsorejects the idea that religiosity is a defensive reaction to modernisation and westernisation
  • instead religiosity is a result of their ‘ambivalence’ = (uncertainty) towards their new found wealth in the globalised world.
  • Through the reinterpretation of religious text
  • middleclass hindus are being taught that consummerism can be ‘spiritually balanced’ by payng for the performance of religious rituals = links to calvinism - their wealth balannces out with relion
  • X: we could argue that globalisation has remove relion coutries like japan
93
Q

closed belief

Defining religion

ideology, science, religion

A

Different sets of beliefs distingushes from
* Ideology - science - religion
Main approaches to defining religion
- Substantive definition: DO THEY BELIEVE IN A GOD - EXCLUSIVE - either religious or not
- Functional definition: in terms of its social and physological funtions e.g. religion contribution to social integration (DURKHEIM) - MORE INCLUSIVE

How religion differs from science:
- science is an open beilef system in compassion to religion
- religion is based upon faith, whilst science is based upon direct observation - closed beleif system - sacred knowldged - doesnt change - e.g. religious fundamentalists.

94
Q

science as a belief system

A
  • A belief system is any set of ideas and beliefs that people use to make sense of the world around them.
  • science enables us to explain, predict and control the world in a way that other beliefs systems do not (religion)
  • its achievements in medicine r.g. have eridacted many once fatal disease
  • however our faith in science have started to fail - due to man-made risk - beck - e.g. covid
95
Q

science

open system of belief

POPPER + Merton

A

1)
- OPEN TO ‘SCRUNITY’ CRITICISM AND TESTING BY OTHERS POPPER
- A goverened by the principle of falsification = where scientists falsify existing theories = can be challenged.
- nothing in science is sacred - or an absolute truth
- scientist knowledge is based on cumalitaives = it another theory REPLACES the OTHER - contrast with contrast religion a closed system that relies upon faith

2) MERTON agrees w ^
- The C UDO S norms: (ACRONMYN HERE ARE SOME) - science has grown, shaped by:
- C ommunism – scientific knowledge must be shared or knowledge cannot grow
- O rganised S cepticism – every idea is open to questioning and investigation.

96
Q

closed system of beliefs

Horton

A
  • he holds the view similar to popper - SCIENCE COMUNNITY WASNT ‘OPEN’ AS POPPER SUGGEESTED
    scence is a closed belief system bc it is self-sustaining e.g. fundamentalist Christians , for example, reject the scientific concept of evolution and believe that God created the world just as it was written in the Bible more than 2000 years ago.
  • Its knowledge is sacred and therefore cannot be challenged. Therefore religion is known as a closed belief system.
97
Q

CONNECTS WITH HORTON

KUHN SCIENCE IS NOT AN OPEN SYSYTEM + intepretivits

paradgims shifts

A
  • He argues that science is based on shared assumptions called paradigms, which develop over time.
  • paradigms guides what scientists to see reality​, WHAT METHODS/EQUIPMENT to use
  • therefore normal science is puzzle solving = LAYS DOWN THE BROAD OUTLINES - think of it how we start with the corners with a puzzle
  • Science rejects information that contradicts existing knowledge, making it a socially constructed understanding = based on subjective interpretations.
  • supports - interpretvists who argued that science is socially contructed
  • The example of “Little Green Men” radio signal from 1960’s shows that scientific facts are social constructions, (they didnt know) rather than being objective truths.
98
Q

religion as an ideology

A
  • Ideology is a set of ideas and values, often viewed in sociology as biased or distorted to favor certain groups and prevent change.
  • Describing a belief system as an ideology typically implies it is factually or morally wrong.
99
Q

marxist vs neo-marxists

marxism and ideology

A

Marxists see religion as a way of maintaining class divisions and oppressing the proletariat. They think it stops people from clearly comprehending their class situations.
(mysical fog - lenin- fcc) - the idea that equality will never work - victim blaming ideas about poverty

neo-marxist differs - organic intellectuals - challenges the hegomony of the ruiling classes
HEGEMONY + REVOLUTION = if they were aware they would revolt but Gramsci syas that the wc can develop to have a dual class consciousness. aware of the exploitaion - but can not change anything about - need capitasism and a means for survuvial

100
Q

Feminism and idelogy

Simone de Beauvoir

A
  • Feminist theorists tend to be critical of religion because of its patriarchal foundations. Simone de Beauvoir argued in the 1950s that religion reinforces gender roles within the household, and traps women in the domestic side of family life.
  • Paul Marks describes how ideas from science have been used to justify and exclusivity.
  • there are numerous examples from wide range of religions of the ideas that women are ritually impure = this has given a rise of purification rituals such as ‘churchng’ after a women has gievn birth = some churches may not recieve communion.

However, not all elemnts of religious beleif systens subordinate women. E.G. Matriachal relgion with female deities, new age - spirituality - goddess religion - Hinduism etc. - offer alternative spirtuality

101
Q

functionalism and nationalism is civil religion

A
  • According to functionalism, religion contributes to social solidarity and integration and adds value to people’s lives. It helps people cope with stress and gives their lives meaning.
  • could be a source of conflict (anomie)
  • In modern societies (secular) people may be willing to see themselves as part of a nation. (E.G. Hinduism in India - ultra-nationalism)

maxrist view - nationalism is form to promote fcc - divide ppl against us in other capiatlsit countries - a form of ‘divide and rule’

sociology (8 decks)

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