Religion and identity

Question 1

Definition of religion

Answer 1

• Geertz: a cultural system
• King’s Law Journal (2014): spiritual or non-secular belief system, held by a group of adherents, which claims to explain mankind’s place in the universe and relationship with the infinite, and to teach its adherents how they are to live their lives in conformity with the spiritual understanding associated with the belief system
• group identity that joins a people together under a belief system, these people subscribe to the belief system that explains how people should live in the world, relationship with universe

Question 2

Def of culture

Answer 2

• New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy (2002): sum of attitudes, customs, and beliefs that distinguishes one group of people from another, culture is transmitted, through language, material objects, ritual, institutions, and art, from one generation to the next
• again, notion of group connected – can be open or confined

Question 3

Def of identity

Answer 3

• a definition, an interpretation of the self that establishes what and where the person is in both social and psychological terms
• all identities emerge within a system of social relations and representations.
• Melucci: all identities require the reciprocal recognition of others – identity doesn’t have meaning if not acknowledged by others
• continuity over time and differentiation from others?
• identity of nations: even if don’t, is imagined

Question 4

Recognition of culture, religion identity as an international issue

Answer 4

• factors contributing:
• regime changes in Iran, Afghanistan
• geo-strategic shifts-Soviets in Afghanistan
• 9/11
• home grown terrorism
• Foreign Fighters and the world

Question 5

Levels of analysis of identity

Answer 5

• sub-state level (groups of all persuasions)
  
  • groups within a country and how do they relate to the state
  • e.g. Catalonia independence vote – contributes largely to Spain’s GDP – can have ripple effects throughout Europe and globally
• state level (agency of identity and foreign policy)
• transnational (global networks of identities)
  
  • when people of different countries connect and recognise themselves as of the same identity

Question 6

Origins of transnationalism in IR

Answer 6

• developed late 1960s/early 1970s
• Keohane and Nye: introduced idea of soft power and transnationalism, state no longer sovereignty
  
  • transnational relations: process that transcend state boundaries and relations, citizens/states can interact with other citizens from different states without state influence
  • state system and sovereignty had dominated study of IR, assumed it controls how people interacted with world
  • increase in movement of ideas, people, goods and funds begun to undermine state sovereignty

Question 7

Castell’s network theory

Answer 7

• different forms of networks: which represent the organizational form of globalization in the information age, are comprised of people, travel, commodities and, of course, discourses
• basic premise is that in the era of globalisation, nation-states suffer ‘legitimating crises’ stemming from their inability to respond simultaneously to the vast array of demands which in turn increases the power of emergent transnational social networks
• legitimating crises: convenience issue
  
  • state sovereignty eroding
  • new issues come up states don’t know how to deal with, people resolve themselves

Question 8

Religion and transnationalism

Answer 8

• exchange of ideas and people
• greater connectivity via cyberspace and other technological developments
• news media: ease of information and satellite televisions (our world in our home far away from home) – not just limited to religious transnationalism
• information transmitted extremely quickly across the globe – gives people a choice of which connection they want
• transnationalism has enabled people to form connections and alliances in different spaces without the impact of their countries’ policies - global identities formed in the process
• identities as a response to the perceived imposition of (Western) cultural norms
• religion often incorrectly associated with ethnic groups and geographic boundaries

Question 9

Muslim and transnationalism

Answer 9

• surrounds living best Muslim life according to God, prophets set out how to do good in relationship to self, God, environment and others via angels (prescribed behaviours)
  
  • following prohibited path sends you to ‘hell’ – a burning place of fire
  • notion of life after death (heaven and hell)
• collective desire to be Muslim
• a collective aspiration for increasing Islamization of life coupled with an individual desire to remain living as Muslims

Question 10

Causes of Muslim transnationalism

Answer 10

• sense of being ‘othered’
  
  • Muslim empires weakened and colonised historically
  • othering gaining momentum: transnationalism created spaces for groups to form based on religion
  • with identity comes sense of other
• a sense of economic exploitation – even after decolonisation
  
  • similar to Marxist view of IR
• Muslim diaspora
  
  • Muslims who have moved to different places, become minority in that state
  • idea of Muslims needing to be taken seriously in response to othering and exploitation (also seen in Muslim majority state)
• Islam(s) in the country of origin
  
  • state and societal sponsored Islam
  • over time, Muslims believe have experienced othering and exploitation, realisation can use Islam for political purpose, Muslim diaspora (movement to non-Muslim spaces) – have not been treated well in these states
• nodes of information promoting Islamic identity across borders

Question 11

Transnationalism and Muslim states

Answer 11

• methods of forming alliances
• regional
  
  • D8: alliance formed between Muslim majority states (religious identity) including Turkey, Indonesia, Pakistan and more
  • Turkish push to carve out a space in the name of economic capacity and knowledge in fields relevant to the area. More rights than other states who are not in the region.
• international
  
  • OIC (Organisation of Islamic Countries): charter and limits of activities, but the use of Islam as a defining feature for relations significant.
  • ISIS as the attraction: regional lines formed according to Muslim and non-Muslim areas
  • al-Qaeda: first example of transnational Jihadi religious organisation, initially supported by the West, disperses post-9/11 forming new, different connections
    
    • introduced idea Jihad as sixth pillar of Islam
    • resentment formed by Sunni minority in Iraq due to West’s change of support for Shia and trained fighters as part of Jihad > ISIS emergence (disaffected elements in Syria and supported elements in Iraq)
    • belief in promotion of Caliphate