Reliability of Cognitive Processes - Cognitive Approach Flashcards
Reconstructive Memory
the idea that remembering the past reflects our attempts to reconstruct the events experienced previously
misinformation effect
claims the nature of questions posed by police can influence memory
questions are being asked in a suggestive, leading way
Loftus and Palmer (1974)
AIM: Investigate where the use of leading questions would affect an eyewitness’ estimate of speed
PROCEDURE:
45 students divided into 5 groups of 7 students
7 short films of traffic accidents shown (taken from driver’s education films)
When P. had watched the film twice they were asked to give an account of the accident seen & then answered a questionnaire about the accident
1 critical Q.: asked P. to estimate speed - asked in the same way using different verbs of different intensities
FINDINGS:
Mean estimates highest in the ‘smashed’ condition (40.8mph), lowest in ‘contacted’(31.8mph)
More intense verb - higher the speed estimate
who was Flashbulb memory theory proposed by?
Brown and Kulik (1977)
Flashbulb Memory Theory
Defined as a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid “snapshot” of a moment - surprising and emotional event.
existence of a biological mechanism, when triggered creates a permanent record of the details
different characteristics than regular memories
brown and kulik (1977)
AIM: Investigate whether shocking events are recalled more vividly than other events
PROCEDURE:
Interviews w/ 80 P.
Given a series of nine events and asked about the circumstances where they first heard about the event - when yes, P. asked to write an account of their memory & rate it on a scale of personal importance
Asked if they had a flashbulb memory of personal events
FINDINGS:
P. sait they had v. clear memories of where they were/what they did
99% of P. recalled circumstances from when they heard the news
73/80 P. had flashbulb memories associated w/ a personal shock
Observed much lower rate of FBM among white P. than black P. to the assassinations of Malcolm X & MLK Jr.
Shows link between personal imp. of an event in creation of FBM
cahill and mcgaugh (1995)
AIM: Investigate role of adrenaline & amygdala on memory
PROCEDURE:
P. divided into 2 groups
Each group saw 12 slides each accompanied with a very different story
1st condition: rather boring story about a woman & her son paying a visit to the father in a hospital where they witnessed a disaster preparation drill of a simulated accident victim
2nd condition: story where a boy was involved in a car accident where the feet were severed → quickly brought to hospital where limbs were reattached. Stayed in the hospital for weeks & returned home with his mother
2 weeks after participating, P. asked to come back - memories of specific details were tested
Recognition task consisting of series of questions about slides with 3 answers to choose from
FOLLOW UP STUDY
P. in ‘traumatic story’ condition injected with beta-blocker propranolol
Interferes w/ release of adrenaline→ prevent activation of amygdala to prevent formation of emotional memory
FINAL FINDINGS
Original version: P. w/ more emotionally arousing story demonstrated a better recall of specific story details & slide details
Follow up: 2nd group was no better than the 1st
→ adrenaline & activation of the amygdala play a significant role in the creation of memory linked to emotional arousal
Kulkofsky et al (2011)
AIM: See if there was a difference in rate of flashbulb memories in collectivistic & individualistic cultures
PROCEDURE:
275 adults from China, Germany, Turkey, the UK and the USA
Given a memory questionnaire which mirrored the questionnaire used by BROWN & KULIK 1977; given a series of nine events and asked about the circumstances where they first heard about the event - when yes, P. asked to write an account of their memory & rate it on a scale of personal importance and asked if they had a flashbulb memory of personal events
Asked about when and how they learnt about the events recalled by P. in 5 minutes, and then about the personal importance of the event
In native language of the participants
FINDINGS:
Collectivistic cultures (China): personal importance & intensity of emotion played less of a role in predicting flashbulb memories
More individualistic cultures - opposite
Less rehearsal of the triggering event compared to P. of other cultures lowered chances of developing a FBM, so significant difference in creation of FBM if event was of national importance
strengths of the flashbulb memory theory
Biological evidence supporting the role of emotion in memory formation (E.g. McGaugh&Cahill and Sharot)
Different types of memory are processed in different parts of the brain
limitations of the flashbulb memory theory
Neisser and Harsch (1992) argues it’s the level of confidence, not accurately defining the FBM
Several constructs in the study of FBM are problematic
Personal relevance
Level of surprise
Development of FBM
Real-life research → impossible to verify accuracy
Not possible to measure emotional state at the time of the event (can’t investigate a causal explanation)
biases in thinking and decision making
System 1 is effective but prone to mistakes
Cognitive biases
patterns of decision making/thinking that’re consistent, but inaccurate
Anchoring bias
tendency to rely too heavily on the 1st piece of information offered when making decisions
Tversky and Kahneman (1981)
AIM: Test influence of positive and negative frames on decisions
PROCEDURE:
307 volunteers of self-selected students
Make a decision between two options in a hypothetical scenario of the outbreak of a violent disease
Condition 1: given positive frame, certain (A)(200 people will be saved) less certain (B)(⅓ probability that 600 people will be saved, ⅔ probability that no one will be saved)
Condition 2: given negative frame, certain (C), less certain (D)
All conditions pretty much the same
FINDINGS:
1st condition, 72% A, 2nd condition, 78% D
Demonstrates influence of frame
Positive - certain option, negative - uncertain option
peak-end rule
people judge an experience based on how it felt as its peak and end, instead of the whole experience
