Relationships: sexual selection

Question 1

Define sexual selection

Answer 1

Attributes or behaviours that increase reproductive success are passed on and may become exaggerated over succeding generations or offspring.

Question 2

What is Anisogamy?

Answer 2

The basis for human reproductive behaviour is ansigomy
Differences between male and female sex cells
* Sperm vs Egg
* Large vs Small
* Quantity
* Energy vs expenditure
* Rare vs common
These differences lead to specific mating strategies.

Question 3

What is the consequences of the differences in sexual selection?

Answer 3

These differences in mating strategies lead to different partner preferences in males and females.

Female
* Genetically fit partners with “resources”
* Intelligence, creativity, status, ambition, financial prospects.

Males
* Fertility
* Youth
* Chastity
* Physical signs that production of a healthy offspring is achievable.

Question 4

What is a strength of research into sexual seletion?

Answer 4

Research Support: Female choosiness
Female choosiness was illustrated by the study conducted by Clark and Hatfield (1989)

• They asked male and female student volunteers to approach opposite sex students individually on a univeristy campus, asking the same question: ‘ Ive noticed you around the campus. I find you very attractive. Will you go to bed with me tonight’
• They found gender differences in the responses : 75% males agreed whereas not a single female said ‘yes’

This supports evolutionary theory because it suggests that females are choosier than males when it comes to selecting sexual partners and that males have evolved a different strategy to ensure reproductive success

Question 5

What is a weakness of the sexual selection theory?

Answer 5

Research Critique: More complex
mate choice may be more complicated than suggested by this approach

Research by Penton-Voak et al (1999) suggests that female mate prefrences change across the menstrual cycle

• They found that females preferred a partner with strong masculine features during their most fertile period whereas they showed prefernece for a partner with slightly feminised features as a long term mate.
• masculine appearance preferred - healthier immune system, advantageous and could pass to offspring
• feminine features - suggest kindess and parental cooperation - very desirable traits in a long term partner!

These findings suggest that mate choice may actually be based on a range of factors; rather than simply indicators of gentic fitness

Question 6

What is a strength of the theory of sexual selection?

Answer 6

Reserach support: Prefrences based on Anisgomy
Partner prefernce was supported by research conducted byBuss(1989)

• He conducted surveys in over 33 countries and 10,000 adults and asked questions relating to ages and attributes that evolutionary theory predicts should be important for partner prefrence
• He found that women placed a greater value on resource related characteristics such as good finacial prospects, ambition and industriouness than men did.
• Whereas males valued reproductive capacity in terms of good looks, chastity and preferred younger mates.

These findings reflect sex differences in mate strategies due to anisgomy. They support predictions about partner prefence derived from sexual selection theory. Futhermore, the findings can be applied across a vastity of different cultures, relfecting fundamental human prefernces which are not primarily dependant on cultural influences.

Question 7

What is a weakness of the sexual selection theory?

Answer 7

Weakness : Social and Cultural Influences Underestimated
One limitation of sexual selection theory is that evolutionary theories overlook the influences of social and cultural factors on partner preference.

• Partner preference over the past century have been undoubtedly been influenced by rapidly changing social norms of behaviour. These develop much faster than evolutionary timescales imply and have instead come about due to cultural factors (eg. the introduction of contraception)
• Furthermore womens greater involvement in the workplace means they are no longer dependent on men to provide for them (despite the ongoing inequality in earning). Bereczkei et al (1997) argues that this social change has consequences for women’s mate preference, which may no longer be resource-oriented.

Therefore, partner preference is more likely to be the outcome of a combination of evolutionary and cultural influences, and any theory that fails to account for both is limited

Question 8

What is a weakness of the sexual selection theory?

Answer 8

Weakness: Sexual Selection and Homosexuality

• A criticism often made of sexual selection theory is that it cannot explain partner preferences of gay men and lesbian women. This mainly because in homosexual relationship partners are not assessing genetic fitness.
• To investigate this, Lawson et al. (2014) looked at personal ads placed by heterosexual and homosexual men and women and found the prefererences of homosexual men and women differ just as they do in heterosexual men and women

This similarity in selection strategies may exist because all people, whether homosexual or heterosexual, assess genetically-related qualities that are relevant to raising offspring (e.g. kindness, protectiveness, etc.)

Question 9

What is self-disclosure?

Answer 9

Self-disclosure is the idea that relationships are built upon trust.This trust is gradually developed revealing more and more information personal information such as thoughts, feelings, experiences.

Question 10

What is the social penertration theory?

Answer 10

Social Penetration Theory (SPT) is a psychological theory that explains how interpersonal relationships develop over time through the gradual exchange of information, moving from superficial levels of communication to deeper, more intimate levels. The theory was proposed by psychologists Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor in 1973.

Question 11

What is the onion metaphor?

Answer 11

Altman and Taylor first described the process of self-disclosure as peeling back the layers of an onion.

Question 12

What is Breadth and Depth in regards to self disclosure?

Answer 12

Breadth: refers to the range of topics that are discussed. In the early stages of a relationship, people tend to discuss a wide variety of general topics

Depth:refers to the level of personal significance or intimacy of the topics discussed

Question 13

What does releasing personal information do for the relationship?

Answer 13

Lots of low risk information - superficial at the start.
Eventually we are ready to reveal intimate “high risk” information
Both increase as trust is established

Question 14

What happens if parterns are dissatisfied?

Answer 14

If partners are dissatisfied, then they disclose less until they are gradually disengaged from relationship (depentration).

Question 15

What is reciporcity and how is it involved in self-disclosure?

Answer 15

Can’t be all about receiving information.
Reis & Shaver (1988)

When an individual reveals something, hopefully the partner will respond in a way that is rewarding.
→ greater intimacy going forward.

Question 16

What is a strength of self-discloure?

Answer 16

Strength: Research support

• Sprecher and Hendrick (2004) studied heterosexual couples who were dating, and found that as self-disclosure increased, so did relationship satisfaction.
• Laurenceau et al. (2005). found that self-disclosure and perception of disclosure in a partner led to greater feelings of intimacy in a couple and vice versa.

Such supporting research increases our confidence in the validity of self-disclosure as a factor leading to more satisfying relationships.

Question 17

What is a weakness of self-discloure?

Answer 17

Weakness: Correlation vs Causation
While there is undoubtedly a link between self-disclosure and greater relationship satisfaction, cause and effect cannot be established, reducing the validity of the concept.

Direction of causality could be reversed…

A third variable could be causing both self-disclosure and satisfaction…

Question 18

What is a weakness of research into self-discloure?

Answer 18

Weakness : Issues Vs Debates
* Tang et al. (2013) found that men and women in the USA tended to disclose more sexual thoughts and feelings than romantic partners in China;

• However, despite this the level of relationship satisfaction was high in both cultures.

This shows that self-disclosure is not a requirement for successful relationships in all cultures suggesting that other factors e.g physical attractiveness could have an equal if not greater impact,, making Social Penetration Theory culturally biased.

Question 19

What is a strength of self-discloure?

Answer 19

Strength : Real world Application
The concept of self-disclosure has strong everyday life applications.

For example, it could be used in relationship counselling to help people improve their communication skills.

Question 20

What is an eveolutinary explanation for physical attractiveness?

Answer 20

Shackleford and Larsen (1997)found that people with symmetrical faces are rated as more attractive, This may be due to the fact that it is an honest sign of genetical fitness.

Question 21

What is neotony

Answer 21

Neoteny is the retention of juvenile/childish features into adulthood. An example of neotenous features are :
* Large facial width to height ratio (FWHR)
* Large forehead
* Low set eyes, nose, and mouth
* Small and shorter chin
* Fuller lips
* Large eyes
* Small nose

Question 22

How does neotenous features play a role in sexual selection?

Answer 22

• It could also be because it is an indicator of youthfulness.

In this case, a combination of both neotenous and non-neotenous features is ideal, as it conveys both youthfulness, and sexual maturity.

Question 23

What is the ‘Halo’ effect?

Answer 23

The tendency to allow one specific trait or our overall impression of a person, company or product to positively influence our judgment of their other related traits.

Question 24

How does the halo effect, affect our view of physically attractive people?

Answer 24

Dion et al (1972), found that physically attractive people are consistently rated as kind, strong, sociable and successful compared to unattractive people.

The belief that attractive people have these qualities make them more attractive to us, so we behave positively towards them.

This can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies.

Question 25

What is the matching hypothesis?

Answer 25

Proposed by Walster and Walster 1969)

• Our assessment of our own attractiveness may play a role in our choice of romantic partner
• People choose romantic partners who are of similar physical attractiveness to each other
• We make a realistic judgement about our own value to a potential partner.

Although we desire the most physically attractive partner, people compromise to increase the likelihood of being successful.
The risk of rejection is far greater should we opt for a partner who is potentially more attractive that we are.

Question 26

What is the computer dance? Give the procedure and findings.

Answer 26

Walster et al., (1966) designed a study to test this, called the computer dance.

Procedure: 752 student participants were invited to a dance. They were rated on physical attractiveness by four independent judges beforehand. Participants were asked to fill in a questionnaire, supposedly for the purposes of computer pairing but actually used to rate similarity. Participants were then randomly paired. During the dance, participants were asked to rate their date.

Findings: More attractive students were favoured as dates over the less attractive students. People did not take their own attractiveness into account.

Question 27

What is a strength of the halo effect?

Answer 27

Strength: Research support for Halo effect
Palmer and Peterson (2012) found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable and competent than unattractive people.

Even when participants knew that these ‘knowledgeable’ people had no particular expertise.

This is important because it indicates the importance of physical attractiveness as an important factor in the initial formation of relationships.

Question 28

What is a strength of the evolutionary explanation?

Answer 28

Strength : Research support
Cunningham et at (1995) found that women who had big eyes, prominent cheekbones, small noses and high eyebrows were considered attractive

Cunningham found evidence for symmetry being considered attractive also

What is important was the fact that this was true cross-culturally, suggesting that it’s more than just cultural, it suggests it is evolutionarily advantageous

Question 29

What is a weakness of the matching hypothesis?

Answer 29

Weakness : contradicting research
Taylor et al (2001) studied the activity logs of a popular online dating site.

• This was a real-life test of the matching hypothesis because it measured actual date choices and not just preferences.
• Taylor found that people did not match based on their own attractiveness when online, compared to what the matching hypothesis would suggest

These findings challenge the concept that people choose romantic partners who are roughly of similar physical attractiveness to each other

Question 30

What is a strength of the matching hypothesis?

Answer 30

Counterpoint : meta-analysis
Feingold (1998) carried out a meta-analysis of 17 studies and found a significant correlation in ratings of attractiveness between romantic partners.

• Also Feingold suggests that although people in Taylor’s research seek more attractive partners, doesn’t mean that they get them, so selection may be the fantasy as it is a lab experiment (and not like real life)

This is even more of a strength because the studies looked at actual partners making it more realistic