Evaluation : Biopsychology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a strength of the research into the localisation of function?
(neurosurgery)

A

Research support from Neurosugery

Lobotomies used to be common practice.

  • Surgically removing or destroying parts of the frontal lobe.
  • Brutal but often effective.
  • Controversial still used today

Dougherty et al. (2002)

  • Reported on 44 patients with OCD underwent a cingulotomy
  • 32 week follow up 1 third showed a successful response.
    🡪 Success suggests function is localised.
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2
Q

What is strength of localisation of the function?
(Case study evidence)

A

Case study Evidence

Lots of case study evidence to support the theory of localisation

  • Gage was caught in an explosion which resulted in a meter length pole being hurled through his head and tearing out most of his frontal lobe.
  • Gage survived but…
    Became short tempered, rude and aggressive.

Suggests that the frontal lobe may be responsible for regulating mood - supports localisation.

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3
Q

What is a strength of the research into localisation?

A

Research support from brain scans

There is plenty of supporting evidence for the localisation of neurological function, particularly in language and memory

  • For example Peterson et al. (1988) used brain scans to demonstrate how Wernicke’s area was active during a listening task and Broca’s area was active during a reading task. Suggesting that these areas have different functions.
  • Similarly, a study of long-term memory by Tulving et al. (1994) revealed that semantic and episodic memory reside in different parts of the prefrontal cortex.

Such research, which is conducted using highly sophisticated and objective methods to measure activity in the brain provide sound scientific evidence for the localisation of brain function.

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4
Q

What is a counterpoint to the strength of research into localisation?

A

Counterpoint: support for a hollistic theory

Karl Lashley (1950) challenges the idea of localization of function.

Lashley removed between 10% and 50% of the cortex in rats that were learning a route through a maze.

  • No area was proven to be more or less important than another in terms of being able to learn the route.
  • The process of learning appears to require the entire cortex.
  • Suggests that higher order processes such as learning are distributed in a more holistic way.
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5
Q

What is a weakness of the localisation of the function?

A

Language Localisation is questioned

  • However, although there is evidence from case studies to support the function of the Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area, more recent research has provided contradictory evidence.
  • Dronkers et al. (2007) conducted an MRI scan on Tan’s brain, to try to confirm Broca’s findings.
  • Although there was a lesion found in Broca’s area, they also found evidence to suggest other areas may have contributed to the failure in speech production.

These results suggest that the Broca’s area may not be the only region responsible for speech production and the deficits found in patients with Broca’s aphasia could be the result of damage to other neighbouring regions.

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6
Q

What is a strength of Hemisphereic laterialisation?

A

Strength : laterlisation in the normal brain

Even in a normal brain the two hemispheres process information differently.

  • Fink et al. (1996) used PET scans to identify which brain areas were active during a visual processing task.
  • When asked to attend to global elements 🡪 RH active.
  • When asked to focus on detail 🡪 LH active.

This suggests that, at least for visual processing, hemispheric lateralisation is a feature of the normal brain as well as the split brain

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7
Q

What is a weakness of Hemispheric laterilisation?

A

Limitation : oversimplified- one brain

A limitation is that some aspects of lateralisation theory may be oversimplified.

  • There may be different functions in the RH and LH, but research suggests people do not have a dominant side of their brain which creates a different personality.
  • Nielsen et al analysed brain scans from over 1000 people and found that people used certain hemispheres for certain tasks, but there was no evidence of a dominant side, i.e. not artist’s/mathematician’s brain.

This suggests that the pop-psychology notion of right- or left-brained people is incorrect.

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8
Q

What is a weakness of the split brain research?

A

Limitation : Generlisation issues

One limitation of Sperry’s research is that causal relationships are hard to establish.

  • The behaviour of Sperry’s split brain patients was compared to a neurotypical group, however an issue is that non of the participants in the control group had epilepsy.
  • This is a major confounding variable, as any differences that were observed between the two groups may be the result of the epilepsy rather than the split brain.

This means that some of the unique features of the split-brain participants’ cognitive abilities might have been due to their epilepsy.

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9
Q

What is another weakness of the split brain research?

A

Limitation : Ethical issues

  • On the one hand the patients had already had their corpus collosum cut by the time they came to Sperry’s attention and so were not deliberately harmed. In addition, all procedures were explained to the split-brain patients in advance of their involvement and their full informed consent was obtained. Sperry’s patients would have had the option of not taking part at this point and therefore their participation was voluntary.
  • Having said that, it is possible that the trauma of the operation meant that the patients did not fully understand the implications of what they were agreeing to. They were subject to repeated testing over a lengthy period (years in some cases), and this may have been stressful over time. Furthermore, It is plausible that Sperry’s patients, having been involved in the first few studies, felt obliged to continue once they had established a relationship with Sperry and his fellow researchers. Finally, learning of one’s deficits under the strain of laboratory testing may not have been easy for some of the patients.

This suggests that although Sperry did not intend to harm the split-brain patients, there may have been negative consequences associated with their involvement. For this reason, it is difficult to say, on balance, that the split-brain studies were ethical, even though Sperry probably observed ethical guidelines.

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10
Q

What is a limitation of plasticity and functional recovery?

A

Limitation - negative plasticity

One limitation of the brain’s ability to rewire itself is that it may have negative behavioural consequences.

  • Long term drug use leads to poor cognitive functions and increased risk of dementia.
  • 60-80% of amputees have been known to develop phantom limb syndrome due to cortical reorganisation in the somatosensory cortex. (Ramachandran and Hirstein, 1998)

This suggests that the brain’s ability to adapt to damage is not always beneficial.

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11
Q

What is a strength of plasticty and functional recovery?

A

Strength - Age and plastcity

One strength of the brains ability to adapt and rewire itself is that is does not always sharply decline with age.

  • Bezzola et al. (2012) demonstrated how 40hours of golf training produced changes in the neural representations of moving 40-60 year olds.
  • fMRIs showed increased motor cortex activity in the novice golfers compared to the control group.
  • Suggests more efficient neural representations after training.

This shows that neural plasticity can continue throughout the life span.

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12
Q

What is a strength of plastcity and functional recovery?

A

Strength : real world application

Understanding the processes involved in plasticity has contributed to the field of neurorehabilitation.

  • Following illness or injury to the brain, spontaneous recovery tends to slow down after a number of weeks.
  • Due to this, a form of physical therapy may be needed to maintain improvements in functioning.
  • Techniques may involve movement therapy and electrical stimulation of the brain to counter the deficits in motor and/or coginitive functioning that may be experienced following a stroke, for instance

Although it shows that the brain sometimes needs help to “fix itself” completely and successfully, it also shows research has been used to imrpove treatment for people who have suffered trauma to their brain, thereby increasing their chances of disability free recovery.

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13
Q

What is a limitation of plasticty and functional recovery?

A

Limitation : Coginitive reserve

Another limitation of the brain’s ability to rewire itself is that individual differences could impact recovery rates after trauma.

  • Schneider et al. (2014) revealed that the more time people who a brain injury had spent in education the greater their chances of disability free recovery.
  • A greater cognitive reserve.
  • 40% of people who achieved DFR had 16+ yrs in education.
  • 10% of people who had less than 12 yrs.

Implies that people with brain damage who have insufficient cognitive reserve are less likely to achieve full recovery.

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14
Q

What is a strength of using Fmris to investigate the brain?

A

Strength : Good spatial resolution

  • Unlike other scanning techniques such as PET scans, it does not rely on the use of potentially harmful radiation.
  • It has very good spatial resolution. This means that it produces images that depict detail by the millimetre, making it possible to get a clear picture of how activity is localised in the brain.
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15
Q

What is a weakness of using Fmris to investigate the brain?

A

Limitation : Poor temporal resolution

  • fMRIs can only measure blood flow, it cannot provide a direct measure of neural activity and so it can be difficult to tell exactly what kind of activity is being shown on the screen. This means it is not a truly quantitative measure of mental activity in these areas of the brain.
  • Also means that we cannot infer causation for the changes being observed.
    Very poor temporal resolution - time lag of 5seconds
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16
Q

What is a strength of using EEGs
to investigate the brain?

A

Strength : Good temporal resolution
EEGs are useful in clinical diagnoses.

  • Record the abnormal neural activity associated with epileptic seizures. This can help to determine whether someone experiencing a seizure has epilepsy.
17
Q

What is a weakness of using EEGS to investigate the brain?

A

Limitation : Poor spatial resolution

  • Poor spatial resolution. EEGs only provide very generalised information. Electrical activity can be picked up by several neighbouring electrodes, which makes the source of any activity difficult to pinpoint.

Researchers can’t distinguish between activities originating in different but neighbouring locations in the brain.

18
Q

What is a strength of using ERPS to investigate the brain?

A

Strength : Good temporal resolution
Useful in clincial diagnoses

Provides increased specificity to the measurement of neural processes compared to EEGs.

  • Excellent temporal resolution, as ERPs are derived from EEGs
  • Led to their widespread use in the measurement of cognitive functions and deficits.
19
Q

What is a weakness using ERPS to investigate the brain?

A

Limitation : Lack of standardisation

ERPs are very small and often difficult to pick out from other electrical activity in the brain.

  • This means that a large number of trials often have to be conducted in order to gain meaningful data.
  • Limits the types of questions that ERP readings can realistically answer.
20
Q

What is a strength of using post-mortems to investigate the brain?

A

Strength : Early foundations

Post-mortems allow for a more detailed examination of anatomical and neurochemical elements of the brain, which would not be possible with less invasive methods such as fMRIs and EEGs.

  • Have deepened our understanding of certain disorders such as schizophrenia.
  • Structural anomalies and evidence of changes to neurotransmitter systems, which are both associated with the disorder (Harrison, 2000).
21
Q

What is a weakness of using post-mortems to investigate the brain?

A

Limitation : causation

People die in a variety of circumstances and at varying stages of disease, both of which can influence the post-mortem brain.

  • Drugs treatments, age at death and time between death and PM are possible confounding variables. This means that the observed damage to the brain may not be linked or may paint an incorrect picture of the behaviour under review.
22
Q

What is a strength of research into Biological rhythms : circardian rhythms?

A

Strength : Reserach support

Siffre (1975) found that the absence of external cues significantly altered his circadian rhythm:

  • When he returned from an underground stay with no clocks or light, he believed the date to be a month earlier than it was.
  • This suggests that his 24-hour sleep-wake cycle was increased by the lack of external cues, making him believe one day was longer than it was, and leading to his thinking that fewer days had passed.

This research supports the existence of homeostatic system that maintains the sleep/wake cycle in the absence of light, however, it equally highlights the importance of light in resetting the circadian system and maintaining a 24hr rhythm.

23
Q

What is a strength of research into Biological rhythms : circardian rhythms?

A

Strength : Shift work

Research into circadian rhythms have played a huge role in increasing our understanding of the adverse consequences that occur when they are disrupted.

  • For example night shift workers experience a period of received concentration in the early hours of the morning, making mistakes and accidents more likely to occur (Boivin et al., 1996).
  • Furthermore, research has also found that shift workers are three times more likely to develop heart disease and experience higher divorce rates than people with more typical work patterns (Knutsson, 2003).

This shows that research into the sleep/wake cycle may have real-world implications in economic, as well as social and health sectors.

24
Q

What is a weakness of research into Biological rhythms : circardian rhythms?

A

Weakness : Shift work counterpoint

However, that being said, it must also be said that many studies investigating the effects of shift work tend to use correlational methods.

  • This means it is difficult to establish causality between the desynchronisation of the sleep-wake cycle and any adverse effects experienced.
  • For example, the high divorce rates experienced by shift workers could also be explained by a third factor, such as regularly missing out on family events due to the strain of sleep deprivation.

Whilst this doesn’t mean that previous findings can be disregarded or are not useful in highlighting future areas of study, it does mean that more research must be conducted to determine cause and effect between desynchronisation and any potential adverse effects.

25
Q

What is a weakness of research into Biological rhythms : circardian rhythms?

A

Weakness : individual differences

Finally, despite the many strengths outlined above, it remains hard to make generalisations from research into circadian rhythms.

  • This is because research has suggests that sleep/wake cycles may vary widely from person to person.
  • Duffy et al. (2001) revealed that some people have a natural preference for going to bed earlier and rising early (‘larks’) whereas others prefer the opposite (‘owls’).
  • Such individual differences were also shown by Siffre, who in later studies found that his circadian rhythm had slowed down.

This means that it is difficult to use the research date to discuss much more than averages in circadian rhythm duration, which may not be particularly useful.

26
Q

What is a strength of research into infradian rhythms?

A

Strength : Evolutionary Basis for synchronisation
One strength of menstrual synchronisation is that it could be explained by natural selection.
* Synchronisation of the menstrual cycle is thought to have evolutionary value, as it may have been advantageous for our distant ancestors, for the females to all be fertile at the same time.
* In a social group, this would allow babies who had lost mothers during or after childbirth to have access to breastmilk, thereby improving their chances of survival.

This suggests that menstrual synchronisation is an adaptive strategy.

27
Q

What is a weakness of research into infradian rhythms?

A

Limitation : Methodological Issues
A limitation however, of synchronisation studies is their methodological shortcomings.

  • There are many factors that may effect change to the menstrual cycle, including stress, changes in diet and exercise.
  • These may act as confounding variables, which means that any supposed pattern of synchronisation is no more than would have been expected to occur by chance.

This may explain why other studies have failed to replicate the findings, and shows why many synchrony studies are flawed.

28
Q

What is a strength of research into infradian rhythms?

A

Strength : Real world application

One of the most effective treatments for seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is light therapy, a box which simulates very strong light to reset the body’s internal clock.

  • Studies show this helps reduce the effects of SAD (e.g. excessive sleepiness) in about 80% of people with the condition (Sanassi 2014). It is also preferred over antidepressants in the treatment of SAD because it is regarded as safe with no dangerous side effects or risk of tolerance and/or dependence over time.
  • However, that said, light therapy can produce headaches and eye strain. The bright light can be quite intense and some people may find this aspect uncomfortable. Furthermore, Rohan et al. (2009) suggests that the positive effects of light therapy wear off over time. Her study recorded a relapse rate of 46% over successive winters, compared to 27% in a comparison group receiving CBT.

This suggests that, although light therapy may be effective for the first few months, maybe the positive effects may wear off as the person becomes used to it, making it an effective short-term treatment but additional treatments may be required if benefits are to be maintained.

29
Q

What is a strength of research into Ultradian Rhythms?

A

Strength : Improved understanding of sleep

  • One strength of research into ultradian rhythms is that is has improved our understanding of age related changes in sleep.
  • Sleep scientists have observed that slow wave sleep reduces with age. Growth hormone is mostly produced during SWS and is therefore reduced in older people.
  • Van Cauter et al. (2000) suggests that the resulting sleep deficit may explain various issues in old age, such as reduced alertness. In order to increase SWS, relaxation and medication could be used.

This suggests that knowledge of ultradian rhythms has practical value.

30
Q

What is a strength of Endogenous pacemakers?

A

Strength : An interactionist system
Endogenous pacemakers can’t be studied in total isolation, because the two interact
* Total Isolation scenarios are rare
* Even Siffre wasn’t in complete darkness
* Pacemakers and Zeitgebers interact

Isolating the impact of either of them lowers the validtty of the research, as this does not reflect how they affect the bdoy in the real life .

31
Q

What is a limitation of research into endogenous pacemakers?

A

Limitation : Beyond the master clock
One limitation of SCN research is that it could obscure body clocks

  • Research has found there are circadian rhythms in many organs and cells
  • Peripheral oscillators influenced by SCN but act independantly
  • Damiola et al (2000) shows that altering feeding paterns of mice affected CR in cells in the liver by up to 12 hours
    Suggests the possible presence of other influences on the sleep wake cycle
32
Q

What is a limitation of research into endogenous pacemakers?

A

Limitation : Animal studies : ethics
Animal studies of the sleep/wake cycle are justified because there are very similar mechanisms at work across species.
However, Critics of animal research, such as animal rights campaigners, would take issue with such research.

33
Q

What is a limitation of exogenous zeitbergers?

A

Limitation : The influence of the EZ has been exaggerated
Exogenous zeitbergers do not have the same effect in all enviroments eg innuits of the artic circle
* Very little darkness in the summer
* Very little light in the winter
Similar sleep patterns all year round

34
Q

What is a strength of exogenous zeitbergers?

A

Strength : Age-related insomia
Although studies suggest that EZ are less influential than EPs, not all research agrees.
* Hood et al. Age-related insomnia could be managed by a more active lifestyle.
Changes in lifestyle may be a just as likely cause as internal changes.