Relationships Flashcards
1
Q
What is meant by natural selection?
A
Equivalent to survival of the fittest. Individuals who are better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.
2
Q
What is meant by sexual selection?
A
Equivalent to survival of the sexiest. Evolution driven by a competition for mates and the development of characteristics to ensure reproductive success
3
Q
What is intra-sexual selection?
A
Mate competition. Individuals of one sex (usually males) must outcompete other members of their sex in order to gain access to the other sex.
4
Q
What is inter-sexual selection?
A
Mate choice. Females invest heavily in offspring to make sure they have made the right choice. Probably not a shortage of male - females can be choosy.
5
Q
What was Buss’s (1989) key study procedure?
A
10,000 Males and females from 37 cultures asked to rate 18 characteristics that they looked for in a mate.
6
Q
What was Buss’s (1989) key study findings? Hint: what women looked for. What men looked for.
A
Women looked for men who were ‘good financial prospects’. Men looked for physical attractiveness and youth.
7
Q
How do Buss’s 1989) findings support long term mating preferences for both men and women.
A
Males prefer females who display signs of fertility.
Females prefers males who are able to invest in his/her children.
8
Q
Cultural traditions may be just as important as evolutionary as evolutionary forces. Eval point.
A
Bernstein (2015) points out gender differences in mate preference patterns might stem from cultural traditions rather than being the result of evolved characteristics.
Eg: women being denied economic/political power in many cultures.
9
Q
What is mate choice in real life about? eval point.
A
Buss’ survey may lack validity as they give us an indication of expressed preferences rather than a reflection of what actually happens in real life.
10
Q
What are female preference for high status men may not be universal about? eval point.
A
Buller (2005) claims evolutionary psychologists are mistaken in claims of a universal female preference for high status men as mates. Argues majority of studies attempting to determine female mate preferences have been carried out on female undergraduate students. Tf weakens evidence.
11
Q
2 weaknesses in the methodology of Buss’s (1989) key study.
A
- Questionnaire format, social desirability as a consequence.
- Temporal validity potentially lacking, 31 years ago, partner preferences change constantly especially with more equal pay between men and women being brought in in the last 30 years.
12
Q
2 strengths in the methodology of Buss’s (1989) key study.
A
- Variety of cultures, offers greater generality.
- Large sample size, large variety of viewpoints on characteristics needed in a relationship.
13
Q
What is the ‘matching hypothesis’ proposed by Walster and Walster (1969)?
A
Claims when initiating romantic relationships, individuals seek out partners whose social desirability approximately equals their own.
14
Q
How does the ‘matching hypothesis’ work when choosing a partner.
A
Individuals must first assess their own ‘value; in eyes of potential partner. Then select best available candidates who would be most likely to be attracted to them.
15
Q
1
A
1
16
Q
What was the procedure of Walster et al. (1966) key study in the matching hypothesis?
A
- Over 300 male and female Uni students randomly selected to take part in a ‘computer dance’.
- 4 students when picking up tickets randomly rated ppts using questionnaire on physical attraction. They were then matched.
17
Q
What were the findings of Walster et al. (1966) key study in the matching hypothesis?
A
Did not support matching hypothesis. Once ppts met dates, regardless of their OWN physical attractiveness, responded positively to physically attractive dates, more likely to meet again.
18
Q
Give 1 methodology strength of Walster et al. (1966).
A
-Participants selected randomly from large number of students that had signed up for the dance.
19
Q
Give 3 methodology limitations of Walster et al. (1966)
A
- Ethical issues, someone’s mental health if they were rated poorly - put with someone they found unattractive. Embarrassment, no protection from psychological harm.
- All ppts were Uni students, small age range of ppts. Looking for short term mates.
- People volunteering at first to be in the study. Likely to be confident, outgoing people, not a broad range of people.
- Only 4 students, not an objective way of measuring.
- Historical validity.
20
Q
What is Eastwick and Finkel’s (2008) speed dating and challenge to traditional views of attraction about?
Eval point.
A
Found physical attractiveness partner preferences, not predicting real life partner choice.
21
Q
What is Meltzer et al. (2014) research support for sex differences being important in physical attractiveness. Eval point.
A
Meltzer et al. (2014) found ratings of wives’ attractiveness were positively related to husband’s satisfaction at the beginning of marriage + remained that way for 4 years. Not the same for females.
22
Q
What is Taylor et al. (2011) matching may not be that important in initial attraction. Eval point.
A
No evidence daters decisions driven by a similarity between own and partner’s physical attractiveness.
23
Q
What is Sprecher and Hatfield’s (2009) research suggesting the matching hypothesis is reductionistic.
A
Matching is much more complex and that people offer and seek many desirable character, not just physical attractiveness.
24
Q
What is self-disclosure?
A
Refers to the extent to which a person reveals personal info about themselves eg: intimate thoughts and feelings - important process in the development of romantic relationships.
25
What is Sprecher's research on self-disclosure? (2)
Sprecher et al (2013) typically showed level of self-disclosure RECEIVED is a BETTER indicator of loving and liking than the level of self-disclosure you give to them.
Also, positive correlation between level of self-disclosure given and the longevity of relationships.
26
What type of self disclosure is the most influential type in relationship satisfaction.
Personal disappointments / accomplishments about previous sexual relations.
27
What are the norms of self-disclosure?
People should only engage in moderate levels of S-D in early stages of relationship.
28
Who conducted a key study into self-disclosure and what was the aim?
Sprecher et al. (2013).
| Interested in whether reciprocal s-d more influential in determining attraction compared to one sided s-d.
29
What was Sprecher et al. (2013) procedure to his key study into self-disclosure.
Over 100 Us Uni students put into pairs
2/3 female-female, 1/3 male-female
Task over skype, students paired in either reciprocal or non-reciprocal dyads and assessed for liking the other person.
30
What was Sprecher et al. (2013) findings to his key study into self-disclosure.
Individuals in reciprocal condition reported more liking / closeness. Taking turns more likely to lead to positive interpersonal outcomes.
31
Give 2 strengths of Sprecher et al. (2013) methodology.
- Looking at female-female relationships, homosexuality often overlooked.
- Large sample size
- Temporal validity.
32
Give 2 limitations of Sprecher et al. (2013) methodology.
- Cultural bias, all from 1 University in the USA.
- Age bias, more likely Uni students looking for short term mating preferences.
- Task over skype, strength because it may represent a more modern aspect of relationship self-disclosure. However, hiding the truth, social desirability is more easy online.
33
What was Collins + Miller (1994) research support for self-disclosure. Eval point.
Meta-analysis, found people who engage in INTIMATE DISCLOSURES tend to be MORE LIKED than people who disclose lower levels.
Tf supports central role of s-d in development and maintenance of romantic relationships.
34
What are cultural differences in patterns of s-d. Eval point
West typically engage in more intimate s-d than non-Westerners.
Chen (1995) Americans disclose more than Chinese.
Tf suggests the importance of s-d as an aspect of attraction is moderated by culture.
35
What is the 'boom and bust' theory for s-d. Eval point.
Disclosing lots online, too much so there is no support for relationship, becomes difficult to sustain - hence bust.
36
What does Kerckoff and Davis's 'filter theory' of attraction?
Suggest we choose romantic partners by using a series of filters that narrow down the field available from which we might make our choice.
37
What are the 3 filters Kerckoff and Davis put forward in the filter theory?
- Social demography
- Similarity in attitudes
- Complementarity of needs
38
What is social demography?
Variables such as age, social background and geographical location determine likelihood of individuals meeting in the first place.
39
What is similarity in attitudes?
Individuals' psychological characteristics specifically agreement on attitudes and basic beliefs.
40
What is complementarity of needs?
Refers to how well two people fit together as a couple and meet each others needs.
41
What was Kerckhoff and Davis's (1962) key study procedure.
Couples completed questionnaires of shared attitudes and values and degree of need complementarity.
42
What was Kerckhoff and Davis's (1962) key study findings.
Dating for less than 18 months - similarity in attitudes the most significant predictor of closeness. More than 18 months, only complementarity of needs predictive of closeness
43
Give 2 strengths of K+D's methodology in attraction: filter theory.
- Longitudinal study - over a period of time.
| - Large sample size.
44
Give 2 limitation of K+D's methodology in attraction: filter theory.
- Historical validity
- Uni students, looking for short term mating preferences.
- Subjective, given questionnaire, problems with social desirability.
- Culture bias.
45
Levinger et al (1970) failed to replicate K+D's results. Eval point.
Used over 300 couples who were steadily attached and went through the same procedure, however, Levinger found no significant results.
46
Duck (1973) suggests the real value of the filter attraction theory. Eval point.
Allows people to make predictions about future interactions, so they can avoid relationships that will not work.
47
Historical validity being a problem for attraction, filter theory. Eval point.
Problems with generalising this study is that attitudes and values constantly change over time.
There are many instances also where people are not aware of partners needs or values.
48
What is the social exchange theory (Thibaut + Kelley, 1959) about?
The likelihood of a person staying in a relationship is determined by assessing what they get out compared to what they put in against WHAT THEY EXPECT THEY MIGHT ACHIEVE IN A DIFFERENT RELATIONSHIP.
49
Give 2 examples of costs in the social exchange theory.
- Effort
- Financial investment
- Time wasted.
50
Give 2 examples of rewards in the social exchange theory.
- Sex
- Care
- Companionship.
51
What is comparison level in the social exchange theory?
Product of our experiences in other relationships together with our general views of what we might expect from this exchange.
52
How do we judge a relationship in the social exchange theory?
Whether the potential profit in the new relationship exceeds comparison level - what we expect from exchange, the view we have built up.
53
What was Kurdek and Schmitt (1986) procedure for their key study into social exchange theory?
Investigated importance of social exchange factors in heterosexuals and same-sex couples.
54
What was Kurdek and Schmitt (1986) find for their key study into social exchange theory?
No difference between homosexual / heterosexual relationships.
Greater relationship satisfaction with: perception of many benefits of current relationship.
seeing alternatives to current relationship as less attractive.
55
Give 2 strengths of Kurdek and Schmitt's (1986) key study in social exchange theory.
- Sample size 185 couples, allows more generality.
| - Variety of relationship types (4), realistic of relationships in the world.
56
Give 2 limitations of Kurdek and Schmitt's (1986) key study in social exchange theory.
- Historical validity
- Questionnaire problems
- No children living with any of the couples, strength because they are all without children but weakness because it does not show a full scale of relationship types.
57
What is the real world application of relationship therapy in the social exchange theory. Eval point
Individuals in unsuccessful marriages frequently report a lack of positive behaviour exchanges with their partner and excess of negative exchanges.
Integrated behavioural couples therapy attempts to increase the proportion of negative exchanges helping partners break negative patterns.
58
What is the problem of costs and benefits in the social exchange theory? Eval point.
Confusion of what constitutes a cost and benefit in relationship.
Considered rewarding to one person (constant attention) may be punishing another (may be irritating).
59
What is evidence for the influence of comparison level for alternatives in the social exchange theory? Eval point.
Sprecher (2001) found in a longitudinal study of dating couples in a US University found the exchange variable most highly associated with relationship commitment was partners' comparison level for alternatives.
60
What is comparison levels for alternatives in the social exchange theory?
Person compares potential increase in rewards from different partner costs associated with ending current relationship.
61
What is the equity theory?
Claims that people are most comfortable when what they get out of a relationship (benefits) is roughly equal to what they put in (costs)
62
What is inequity and dissatisfaction in the equity theory.
People are most comfortable when they perceive they are getting roughly what they deserve.
Equitable relationships should be where one partner's benefits - costs = partner's benefits less their costs.
63
What happens when you are over-benefited in the equity theory?
Over-benefited results in guilt and shame.
64
What happens when you are under-benefited in the equity theory?
Under-benefited results in anger and sadness.
65
What was Stafford and Canary's (2006) key study PROCEDURE into the equity theory.
200 married couples completed measures of equity and relationship satisfaction.
66
What was Stafford and Canary's (2006) key study FINDINGS into the equity theory.
Satisfaction highest when relationships perceived to be equitable.
67
Give 2 strengths of Stafford and Canary's methodology into their key study.
- Sample size > 100
- Temporal validity
- Long term relationships - married couples - all committed to each other.
68
Give 1 limitation of Stafford and Canary's methodology into their key study.
-Subjectivity to social desirability.
69
What is Huseman et al.(1987) equity sensitivity in the equity theory. Eval point.
Not all individuals experience inequity in the same way. Huseman developed the idea of equity sensitivity to explain "benevolents" more tolerant of under-rewarded inequity. "Entitleds" dissatisfied when under-rewarded, Tf, only one type of individual matches the equity theory.
70
What are gender differences in the importance of equity theory. Eval point.
DeMaris et al. (2010) points out men and women are not equally affected by inequity in romantic relationships. This is because women tend to perceive themselves as under-benefited compared to men. DeMaris suggests they are more sensitive to relationship focus.
71
What are cultural differences in the importance of equity theory. Eval point.
Possibility in non-Western cultures, equity theory is not as important, given most research into the equity theory is carried out in the west.
Aumer-Ryan et al. (2006) found in all cultures studied it was considered important for the relationship to be equitable. US and Jamaica differences - Jamaica claimed to be in the least equitable relationship. Suggests culture has a massive impact.
72
Who proposed the investment model of relationships?
Rusbult.
73
What are the three factors in a relationship that make commitment high?
- Satisfaction
- Quality of alternatives
- Investment size
74
What are the 5 things in the investment model?
- Satisfaction
- Quality of alternatives
- Investment size
= Commitment
= Future stay or leave decision.
75
What is satisfaction in the investment model?
Extent to which the current partner fulfills a person's important needs.
76
What is quality of alternatives in the investment model?
Extent to which individual's needs might be fulfilled outside current relationship.
77
What is investment size in the investment model?
Measure of all resources are attached to the relationship, which would be lost if relationship ended.
78
What is commitment level in the investment model?
Likelihood of relationship persisting.
79
What is Le and Agnew's (2003) PROCEDURE in their key study into the investment model?
Meta-analysis of 52 studies of different components of investment model.
80
What is Le and Agnew's (2003) FINDINGS in their key study into the investment model?
All three components highly correlated with relationship commitment. Satisfaction most highly correlated!
81
Give 2 strengths of Le and Agnew's (2003) methodology of their key study into investment model of relationships.
Large sample size - able to generalise somewhat to the rest of the world.
-Culture range
82
Give 2 limitations of Le and Agnew's (2003) methodology of their key study into investment model of relationships.
- Temporal validity, study done between (1970-90) despite the study being published in 2003. Relationship norms change constantly.
- Problem with a meta-analysis, the validity of each study is questionable because each study will not have the exact same procedure.
83
The investment model of relationships can be applied to the real world. How? Eval point.
Can be used to help explain abusive relationships. Victims of partner abuse experience low satisfaction but many still stay in relationship due to their lack of alternatives, so ending the relationship would be too costly.
84
Further research stressing importance of commitment. Eval point.
Commitment as an indicator of relationship stability - Le et al.(2010). Studying nearly 38,000 ppts over a period of 33 years. Found commitment was the strongest predictor of whether a relationship would break up.
85
A limitation with the investment model - difficulty in measuring commitment and other variables. Eval point.
Problems with a self-reporting technique, up to individuals to tell the truth. Produces qualitative data which is harder to generalise.
86
What is an issue with the investment model of relationships. Eval point.
Ethical concerns with invading someone's privacy because relationship issues are personal.
87
DEFINE
| Who proposed the 5 then 6 stages for relationship breakdown?
Duck, 1982.
88
List the 5 now 6 phases of the relationship breakdown.
- Breakdown
- Intrapsychic phase
- Dyadic processes
- Social phase
- Grave-Dressing phase.
- Resurrection processes.
89
What is the breakdown phase in relationship breakdown. Which level stage is it?
1st
| Dissatisfaction with relationship. 'Can no longer stand this relationship'
90
What is the intrapsychic phase in relationship breakdown. Which level stage is it?
2nd
Individual thinks deeply over their current relationship and considers whether they might be better out of it.
Social withdrawal, shutting off from partner.
91
What is the dyadic phase in relationship breakdown. Which level stage is it?
3rd
Individual confronts partner, discusses their feelings and their relationship discontentment AND the future of the relationship
92
What is the social phase in relationship breakdown. Which level stage is it?
4th
Going public, seeking support.
Discontentment spills over to family and friends.
93
What is the grave-dressing phase in relationship breakdown. Which level stage is it?
5th
| Partners tidy the memories of the relationship. Reinforce it is not their fault - for themselves.
94
Duck 1982 added a 6th stage in 2006 in relationship breakdown. What is this called?
Resurrection processes.
95
What is the resurrection processes in relationship breakdown? (2)
Defining what to get out of future relationships. Preparation for future relationships.
96
Why did Duck add a 6th stage to the phase model of relationship breakdown? Eval point.
Acknowledged his 1982 model failed to reflect the possibility of personal growth.
97
Tashiro + Fraiser support relationship breakdown. Eval point.
Studied UGs who had recently broken up with romantic partner. Reported breaking up gave them new insights/ideas about future partners. Through final processes were able to put relationship to rest and move on.
98
What is the real world application in relationship breakdown - intervention implications. Eval point.
Model processes relationship breakdown. This is because the model is so detailed, therapists are able to identify where you are and you are more likely to get help due to these stages.
99
What is the heterosexual bias about in relationship breakdown? also what is it?
Eval point.
It is a reductionist viewpoint. This is because the model is developed from white, middle class, heterosexual participants. Therefore, may not represent experiences of other groups.
100
What are the ethical issues in relationship breakdown. Eval point.
- Breakdown may be distressing and may cause PSYCHOLOGICAL HARM.
- CONFIDENTIALITY, woman being in abusive relationship, scared it might get out that she has had therapy.
101
What did Jourard (1971) propose, to do with self-disclosure in virtual relationships.
Concept of 'broadcasting s-d' to explain the difference between disclosure to a romantic partner and sharing of personal info in public situation.
102
Give 2 reasons why self-disclosure in virtual relationships happens.
- Involves person presenting edited version of themselves - better version.
- Less fear of disapproval due to relative anonymity.
103
What is the absence of gating in face-to-face relationships.
Communicating through the internet removes a number of factors that usually act as a barrier to stopping interactions face-to-face. Factors such as:
- level of physical attractiveness
- speech defects
- being from different social/ethnic backgrounds
- age group
104
What did Zhao et al (2008) find into virtual relationships.
Zhao et al (2008) found that online social networks enable individuals to present the identities they hope to establish but are unable to in face-to-face interactions. Which often means they can present someone who is more socially desirable than their actual self.
105
What did Rubin (1975) find into why people self-disclose more on the internet.
Rubin (’75) found a similar phenomenon when studying personal disclosure of information in normal relationships with people being far more likely to disclose highly personal information to strangers as they knew (a) they would probably never see the person again, and (b) the stranger could not report disclosures to the individual’s social group.
106
What is a gate in a virtual relationship?
A gate is any feature/obstacle that could interfere with the development of a relationship.
107
Give a brief outline of the absence of gating in virtual relationships.
In virtual relationships, the absence of face-to-face interactions allows you to create a better self image and hide real self somewhat.
In online social networks, the barriers to interactions allow you to stretch the truth and avoid gating obstacles.
108
Rosenfeld + Thomas (2012) found evidence showing virtual relationships can be as strong as offline relationships. Eval point.
Putnam (2000) believes internet communication can only lead to superficial relationshpis - believes they are of lower quality. Rosenfeld + Thomas (2012) disagree as they found no evidence to support this claim - no difference between quality in online or offline relationships.
109
What did Rosenfeld + Thomas (2012) find into virtual relationships. SUPPORT. Eval point.
Demonstrated importance of internet and social media helping individuals form relationships. 4000 US adults, found individuals with internet access at home were more likely to partnered 71.8%.
110
Baker and Oswald (2010) argue shy individuals value in virtual relationships. Eval point.
Baker and Oswald. Surveyed 207 male and female students on their shyness, Facebook usage and quality of friendships. High shyness, greater use of Facebook = high quality relationships.
Suggests sites like Facebook help people overcome barriers they face when trying to form relationships.
111
Virtual relationships have consequences for offline relationship - Zhao et al.(2008). Eval point
Zhao claims we should not see offline and online relationships as completely separate because online relationships do have consequences for people's offline lives. Individual's 'digital selves' Can help increase individual's overall self image and increase their chances of connecting with people offline.
112
What is a parasocial relationship?
A parasocial relationship is one where an individual is attracted to another individual, but the target is unaware of the existence of the other person.
113
Who are parasocial relationships common among?
Fans of famous people.
114
Why are parasocial relationships appealing?
They are low maintenance relationships - not much effort required.
115
What are the three attachment behaviours in parasocial relationships?
- Proximity seeking
- Secure base
- Protest at disruption.
116
What is proximity seeking in parasocial relationships?
Individuals attempt to reduce the distance between themselves and attachment figure.
117
What is a secure base in parasocial relationships?
Presence of attachment provides a sense of security that allows them to explore the world.
118
What is protest at disruption in parasocial relationships?
Best marker of attachment may be the presence of prolonged distress following separation.
119
What is absorption addiction in parasocial relationships?
Absorption may become addictive, leading person to extreme behaviours to sustain satisfaction with PSR.
120
Giles and Maltby (2006) found 3 levels to the absorption addiction model in parasocial relationships.
- Entertainment-social
- Intense-personal
- Boderline-pathological
121
What is entertainment-social in the PSR?
Fans are attracted to a favourite celebrity and learn about that celebrity for the purpose of entertainment.
122
What is intense-personal in the PSR?
Deeper level of involved, reflects intensive and compulsive feelings about the celebrity.
123
What is borderline-pathological in the PSR?
Uncontrollable behaviours and fantasies about their lives.
124
What is the research support for factors involved in parasocial relationships? Eval point.
Schiappa (2007) meta-analysis, support for people with higher levels of PSR ALSO likelihood of forming a PSR with TV characters was linked to those characters' perceived attractiveness and their similarity to the viewer.
125
Are PSR linked to loneliness? Eval point.
Greenwood and Long (2009) found individuals may develop PSRs as a way of dealing with loneliness or loss.
PSRs may not only compensate for feelings of loneliness. But the lack of PSR can create feelings of loneliness/loss.
126
Absorption addiction model: links to the mental health. Parasocial relationships. Eval point
Maltby et al. (2003) found whereas entertainment-social level was associated with neuroticism (tense, emotional, moody)
127
What are cultural similarities in parasocial relationships? Eval point.
Schmid and Klimmit (2011) investigated differences. Germany individualistic. Mexico collectivistic. Found similar patterns of PSRs with Harry Potter and other characters in franchise.
