Relationships Flashcards
What is meant by natural selection?
Equivalent to survival of the fittest. Individuals who are better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.
What is meant by sexual selection?
Equivalent to survival of the sexiest. Evolution driven by a competition for mates and the development of characteristics to ensure reproductive success
What is intra-sexual selection?
Mate competition. Individuals of one sex (usually males) must outcompete other members of their sex in order to gain access to the other sex.
What is inter-sexual selection?
Mate choice. Females invest heavily in offspring to make sure they have made the right choice. Probably not a shortage of male - females can be choosy.
What was Buss’s (1989) key study procedure?
10,000 Males and females from 37 cultures asked to rate 18 characteristics that they looked for in a mate.
What was Buss’s (1989) key study findings? Hint: what women looked for. What men looked for.
Women looked for men who were ‘good financial prospects’. Men looked for physical attractiveness and youth.
How do Buss’s 1989) findings support long term mating preferences for both men and women.
Males prefer females who display signs of fertility.
Females prefers males who are able to invest in his/her children.
Cultural traditions may be just as important as evolutionary as evolutionary forces. Eval point.
Bernstein (2015) points out gender differences in mate preference patterns might stem from cultural traditions rather than being the result of evolved characteristics.
Eg: women being denied economic/political power in many cultures.
What is mate choice in real life about? eval point.
Buss’ survey may lack validity as they give us an indication of expressed preferences rather than a reflection of what actually happens in real life.
What are female preference for high status men may not be universal about? eval point.
Buller (2005) claims evolutionary psychologists are mistaken in claims of a universal female preference for high status men as mates. Argues majority of studies attempting to determine female mate preferences have been carried out on female undergraduate students. Tf weakens evidence.
2 weaknesses in the methodology of Buss’s (1989) key study.
- Questionnaire format, social desirability as a consequence.
- Temporal validity potentially lacking, 31 years ago, partner preferences change constantly especially with more equal pay between men and women being brought in in the last 30 years.
2 strengths in the methodology of Buss’s (1989) key study.
- Variety of cultures, offers greater generality.
- Large sample size, large variety of viewpoints on characteristics needed in a relationship.
What is the ‘matching hypothesis’ proposed by Walster and Walster (1969)?
Claims when initiating romantic relationships, individuals seek out partners whose social desirability approximately equals their own.
How does the ‘matching hypothesis’ work when choosing a partner.
Individuals must first assess their own ‘value; in eyes of potential partner. Then select best available candidates who would be most likely to be attracted to them.
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What was the procedure of Walster et al. (1966) key study in the matching hypothesis?
- Over 300 male and female Uni students randomly selected to take part in a ‘computer dance’.
- 4 students when picking up tickets randomly rated ppts using questionnaire on physical attraction. They were then matched.
What were the findings of Walster et al. (1966) key study in the matching hypothesis?
Did not support matching hypothesis. Once ppts met dates, regardless of their OWN physical attractiveness, responded positively to physically attractive dates, more likely to meet again.
Give 1 methodology strength of Walster et al. (1966).
-Participants selected randomly from large number of students that had signed up for the dance.
Give 3 methodology limitations of Walster et al. (1966)
- Ethical issues, someone’s mental health if they were rated poorly - put with someone they found unattractive. Embarrassment, no protection from psychological harm.
- All ppts were Uni students, small age range of ppts. Looking for short term mates.
- People volunteering at first to be in the study. Likely to be confident, outgoing people, not a broad range of people.
- Only 4 students, not an objective way of measuring.
- Historical validity.
What is Eastwick and Finkel’s (2008) speed dating and challenge to traditional views of attraction about?
Eval point.
Found physical attractiveness partner preferences, not predicting real life partner choice.
What is Meltzer et al. (2014) research support for sex differences being important in physical attractiveness. Eval point.
Meltzer et al. (2014) found ratings of wives’ attractiveness were positively related to husband’s satisfaction at the beginning of marriage + remained that way for 4 years. Not the same for females.
What is Taylor et al. (2011) matching may not be that important in initial attraction. Eval point.
No evidence daters decisions driven by a similarity between own and partner’s physical attractiveness.
What is Sprecher and Hatfield’s (2009) research suggesting the matching hypothesis is reductionistic.
Matching is much more complex and that people offer and seek many desirable character, not just physical attractiveness.
What is self-disclosure?
Refers to the extent to which a person reveals personal info about themselves eg: intimate thoughts and feelings - important process in the development of romantic relationships.
What is Sprecher’s research on self-disclosure? (2)
Sprecher et al (2013) typically showed level of self-disclosure RECEIVED is a BETTER indicator of loving and liking than the level of self-disclosure you give to them.
Also, positive correlation between level of self-disclosure given and the longevity of relationships.
What type of self disclosure is the most influential type in relationship satisfaction.
Personal disappointments / accomplishments about previous sexual relations.
What are the norms of self-disclosure?
People should only engage in moderate levels of S-D in early stages of relationship.
Who conducted a key study into self-disclosure and what was the aim?
Sprecher et al. (2013).
Interested in whether reciprocal s-d more influential in determining attraction compared to one sided s-d.
What was Sprecher et al. (2013) procedure to his key study into self-disclosure.
Over 100 Us Uni students put into pairs
2/3 female-female, 1/3 male-female
Task over skype, students paired in either reciprocal or non-reciprocal dyads and assessed for liking the other person.
What was Sprecher et al. (2013) findings to his key study into self-disclosure.
Individuals in reciprocal condition reported more liking / closeness. Taking turns more likely to lead to positive interpersonal outcomes.
Give 2 strengths of Sprecher et al. (2013) methodology.
- Looking at female-female relationships, homosexuality often overlooked.
- Large sample size
- Temporal validity.
Give 2 limitations of Sprecher et al. (2013) methodology.
- Cultural bias, all from 1 University in the USA.
- Age bias, more likely Uni students looking for short term mating preferences.
- Task over skype, strength because it may represent a more modern aspect of relationship self-disclosure. However, hiding the truth, social desirability is more easy online.
What was Collins + Miller (1994) research support for self-disclosure. Eval point.
Meta-analysis, found people who engage in INTIMATE DISCLOSURES tend to be MORE LIKED than people who disclose lower levels.
Tf supports central role of s-d in development and maintenance of romantic relationships.
What are cultural differences in patterns of s-d. Eval point
West typically engage in more intimate s-d than non-Westerners.
Chen (1995) Americans disclose more than Chinese.
Tf suggests the importance of s-d as an aspect of attraction is moderated by culture.
What is the ‘boom and bust’ theory for s-d. Eval point.
Disclosing lots online, too much so there is no support for relationship, becomes difficult to sustain - hence bust.
What does Kerckoff and Davis’s ‘filter theory’ of attraction?
Suggest we choose romantic partners by using a series of filters that narrow down the field available from which we might make our choice.
What are the 3 filters Kerckoff and Davis put forward in the filter theory?
- Social demography
- Similarity in attitudes
- Complementarity of needs
What is social demography?
Variables such as age, social background and geographical location determine likelihood of individuals meeting in the first place.
What is similarity in attitudes?
Individuals’ psychological characteristics specifically agreement on attitudes and basic beliefs.
What is complementarity of needs?
Refers to how well two people fit together as a couple and meet each others needs.
What was Kerckhoff and Davis’s (1962) key study procedure.
Couples completed questionnaires of shared attitudes and values and degree of need complementarity.
What was Kerckhoff and Davis’s (1962) key study findings.
Dating for less than 18 months - similarity in attitudes the most significant predictor of closeness. More than 18 months, only complementarity of needs predictive of closeness
Give 2 strengths of K+D’s methodology in attraction: filter theory.
- Longitudinal study - over a period of time.
- Large sample size.
Give 2 limitation of K+D’s methodology in attraction: filter theory.
- Historical validity
- Uni students, looking for short term mating preferences.
- Subjective, given questionnaire, problems with social desirability.
- Culture bias.
Levinger et al (1970) failed to replicate K+D’s results. Eval point.
Used over 300 couples who were steadily attached and went through the same procedure, however, Levinger found no significant results.
Duck (1973) suggests the real value of the filter attraction theory. Eval point.
Allows people to make predictions about future interactions, so they can avoid relationships that will not work.
Historical validity being a problem for attraction, filter theory. Eval point.
Problems with generalising this study is that attitudes and values constantly change over time.
There are many instances also where people are not aware of partners needs or values.
What is the social exchange theory (Thibaut + Kelley, 1959) about?
The likelihood of a person staying in a relationship is determined by assessing what they get out compared to what they put in against WHAT THEY EXPECT THEY MIGHT ACHIEVE IN A DIFFERENT RELATIONSHIP.
Give 2 examples of costs in the social exchange theory.
- Effort
- Financial investment
- Time wasted.
Give 2 examples of rewards in the social exchange theory.
- Sex
- Care
- Companionship.
