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Isaac's Psy YEAR 2 > Issues and Debates > Flashcards

Issues and Debates Flashcards

1
Q

What is gender bias?

A

It is the different treatment/representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real differences.

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2
Q

What is androcentrism?

A

Male centred/focused often to the neglect or exclusion of women.

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3
Q

What are the two types of gender bias?

A

Alpha

Beta

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4
Q

What is alpha bias in gender? Ex

A

Difference between men and women is exaggerated. Misrepresentation of behaviour as a result.
Devalue one gender in comparison to the other.

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5
Q

What is beta bias in gender? Ig

A

Differences between men and women are ignored. What is assumed for men (usually) will be also assumed for women. Differences ignored.

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6
Q

What is an example of alpha bias in gender?

A

Freud’s theories reflected culture he lived in 19th century. Men more powerful/educated. In Freud’s alpha biased theory of psychoanalysis, he viewed femininity as failed masculinity - exaggerated.

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7
Q

What is an example of beta bias in gender?

A

When researching fight or flight stress responses, male animals mostly used because in females - there is a variation in hormone levels making research more difficult. Tf assumed true for males is true for females. Not the case - ignored.

For schizophrenia, symptoms are found by male psychologists and male ppts - differences ignored. Hence why females have been diagnosed as mentally stable in the past, this may not be the case.

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8
Q

What is universality?

A

Aiming to develop theories that apply to all people, may include real differences. Recognising differences but not the superiority of one gender over another.

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9
Q

Evaluation point about feminist psychology in gender bias.

A

Way to counter androcentrism is to take a feminist perspective. Gilligan argues differences in psychology arises from biological explanations of behaviour. The alternative, is the social constructionist approach, which aims to understand behaviour in terms of social processes and therefore finds a way to greater equality.

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10
Q

Evaluation point, gender bias in research methods.

A

Methods used to test or observe participants may be biased. Or perhaps males and females are treated differently by researchers which may cause differences.

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11
Q

What is reversing alpha bias in gender evaluation point

What is avoiding beta bias evaluation point

A

Changing preconceptions saying that women are better than men: research suggests they are better learners because they are more attentive and organised - Cornwall et. al.

Equal treatment for men and women (beta bias) given women greater opportunities - may be a disadvantage. Mustin and Marecek (1988) point out arguing for equality between men and women draws attention away from women’s special needs.
For example pregnancy/childbirth - biological demands.
Suggests we should avoid beta bias to ensure significant differences are taken account of.

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12
Q

What is culture bias about?

A

Most of traditional psychology represents Western bias. Psychology is mostly trained and taught in the West. Bias slowly reducing as psychology spreading.

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13
Q

What are the two types of culture bias?

A

Alpha

Beta

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14
Q

What is alpha bias in culture?

A

Refers to theories that assume there are real and enduring differences in cultural groups eg: collectivist and individualist. - Seperates

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15
Q

What is beta bias in culture?

Give example - IQ tests

A

Refers to theories that assume ignore/ minimise differences between cultural groups.
IQ tests devised by western psychologist assume that this view of intelligence applies to all cultures.
- Ignores

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16
Q

What is ethnocentrism?

A

Refers to our own ethnic background or cultural group as a basis for judgement about other groups. Your culture is superior to others.

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17
Q

Why is ethnocentrism less of a problem today?

A

Globalisation, more cultural mix.

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18
Q

What is cultural relativism?

A

Idea that all cultures are worthy of respect and and that in studying another culture we need to try to understand the way that a particular culture sees the world.

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19
Q

What is indigenous psychologies in cultural bias?

A

Way to overcome ethnocentrism in psychology is to encourage the development of different groups of theories in different countries.

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20
Q

What is emic-etic distinction in cultural bias?

A
  • Indigenous psychologists take an ‘emic’ approach, focusing on culturally specific culture.
  • ‘Etic’ approach seeks universals of behaviour.

‘Emic-etic’ uses indigenous research to promote many cultural settings.

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21
Q

What is the cultural bias in research methods?

A

Samples in textbooks mainly Smith and Bond who are Europeans mainly middle-class and young adults.

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22
Q

Give example and the consequence of cultural bias?

A

US Army IQ tests led to enduring and damaging stereotypes about black and immigrant populations

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23
Q

What is biological determinism?

A

Research into human genome is producing increasing evidence of genetic influences.
For example, the high intelligence gene.

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24
Q

What is environmental determinism?

A

Believe all behaviours are caused by previous experience, through classical/operant.

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25
Q

What is psychic determinism?

A

Freud’s psychoanalytical theory of personality suggests that adult behaviour is determined by a mix of innate drives and early experiences (internal and external forces)
Behaviour driven by libido (sex drive).

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26
Q

What is scientific determinism?

A

Based on belief that all events have a cause. Independent variable manipulated to observe casual effect on dependent variable. Harlow’s study (1959) showed contact comfort, not food, determined formation of attachment.

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27
Q

What is the humanistic approach to free will?

A

Maslow + Rogers argued self-determination is a necessary part of human behaviour.
Only when a person takes self responsibility is personal growth possible.

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28
Q

What is moral responsibility?

A

Says an individual is in charge of their own actions, in other words humans (except children/mentally ill) are accountable for their actions, regardless of innate factors.

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29
Q

Evaluation point for biological determinism.

A

It is doubtful that 100% genetic determinism will ever be found for any behaviour. For example the concordance for twins is never 100%.

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30
Q

Evaluation point for environmental determinism.

A

We know concordance rates for genetic determinism equally show that the environment cannot be solely the determining behaviour

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31
Q

Evaluation point for psychic determinism.

A

No scientific research.

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32
Q

Evaluation point for scientific determinism.

A

Too simplistic

Human behaviour very complex

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33
Q

What is soft determinism?

A

Soft determinism - A version of determinism that allows for some element of free will.

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34
Q

What is hard determinism?

A

Hard determinism - The view that all behaviour can be predicted that there is no free will.

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35
Q

Evaluation point for free will. (2)

A

Being able to decide between different courses of actions is not free will but may give us the illusion of having free will.
Idea of self determination may be a culturally relative concept, appropriate for individualist societies.
Collectivist cultures place greater value on behaviour determined by group needs.

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36
Q

What is the nature debate?

A

Innate influences. Not simply abilities present at birth but anything determined by genes.

37
Q

What is the nurture debate?

A

Acquired through interactions with environment - our experiences.

38
Q

What is the genetic explanation for influence on nature.

A

Family, twin and adoption studies show closer 2 individuals are genetically more likely to develop the same behaviour - eg: addiction.
Schizophrenia: MZ twins = 40% DZ twins = 7%

39
Q

What is the evolutionary explanation for the influence on nature.
Think Darwin

A

idea that a behaviour or characteristic that promotes survival or reproduction will be naturally selected. These adaptive behaviours are subsequently passed on.
Attachment is adaptive as it promotes the survival of the young and ensures genes are passed on (Bowlby)

40
Q

What is the behaviourism example in the influence on nurture?

A

Assumption all behaviours can be explained in terms of experience alone.
eg: operant/classical.

41
Q

What is the social learning example in the influence on nurture?

A

SLT: Bandura’s view was a little less extreme than traditional behaviourism. He also believed behaviour was learned but he did also allow that biology had a role. For example aggressive urges may be biological but the way the behaviour is displayed is learned.

42
Q

What is the evaluation point diathesis stress in the nature-nurture debate?

A

It creates a vulnerability - such as being born with certain genes that predispose a person to developing a disorder.

43
Q

What is the evaluation point nature affecting nurture in the nature-nurture debate?

A

Indirect genetic influences: reactive (one’s behaviour changes environment). Passive (parents influence home environment). Niche picking or active.

44
Q

What is the evaluation point nurture affecting nature in the nature-nurture debate?

A

Taxi drivers knowing map of London.

45
Q

What is the evaluation point epigenetics in the nature-nurture debate?

A

Material in each cell acts as switches to turn genes on and off, passed on to subsequent generations.
Explains why MZ twins + clones are not identical.

46
Q

What are the reductionist levels of explanation? high, med, low

A

Highest level: cultural and social explanations of how our social groups affect our behaviour.
Medium level: Psychological explanations of behaviour.
Lowest level: Biological explanations of how hormones and genes.. affect our behaviour.

47
Q

What is reductionism simply? Include PARSIMONY

A

Pulling complex ideas into more simple components.

Based on scientific assumption of parsimony: idea that complex phenomena should be explained in simple terms.

48
Q

What is holism simply?

A

Simple components do not express the whole behaviour so looking at the whole behaviour.

49
Q

What is biological reductionism? and give example

A

Human behaviour is reduced to a physical level.

Biological psychologists reduce behaviour to actions of neurons/neurotransmitters.

50
Q

What is environmental reductionism?

A

Behaviourist explanations suggest all behaviour can be explained in terms of simple stimulus-response links - behaviour can be reduced to simple relationship between behaviour and events in environment.

51
Q

Give example of biological reductionism.

A

Popular explanation, eg: it is suggested schizophrenia is caused by excessive activity of neurotransmitter dopamine because drugs that block neurotransmitter reduce symptoms.

52
Q

Give example of environmental reductionism.

A

Behaviourist explanations offered for attachment. Complex emotion of attachment reduced to a set of probabilities: mother is likely to provide food which is reinforcing - operant (reduces discomfort). Tf becomes the ‘loved one’.

53
Q

What is experimental reductionism?

A

Reducing complex behaviours to isolated variables. So variables can be operationalised (easily testable) and simple cause/effect relationships can be determined.

54
Q

What is Gestalt psychology in the holism approach to behaviour?

A

Gestalt - ‘the whole’ in German, founded by German psychologists. They focused on perception, arguing that explanations for what we see only makes sense through a consideration of the whole rather than the individual elements.

55
Q

What is humanistic psychology in the holism approach to behaviour?

A

Humanistic psychologists believe individuals react as an organised whole, rather than a set of stimulus response links.

56
Q

What is cognitive psychology in the holism approach to behaviour?

A

Memory is a complex system - recent years has been understood in terms of connectionist networks. Idea each network is a unit.

57
Q

What is a strength/slight weakness of biological reductionism?

A

Development of drug therapies. More humane approach of treating the mentally ill - not blaming the patient, leads to greater tolerance of mentally ill.
However, drug therapies are not always successful as they ignore the context of such behaviour.

58
Q

What is a limitation of environmental reductionism?

A

A limitation of the behavioural approach is that it was developed using experiments with non-human animals. May be useful in terms of simple behaviour but less appropriate for more complex human behaviour. Tf, en. red. ignores other possible influences on human behaviour eg: social contect and emotions.

59
Q

What is a limitation of experimental reductionism?

A

Behaviour reduced to a form that can be easily tested many not tell us much about everyday life. Such as the findings from Loftus and Palmer, had to be done in a lab.

60
Q

What is the idiographic approach to psychological investigation?

A

Individuals study and the unique insights each individual gives us about human behaviour.

61
Q

What data methods does an idiographic approach use?

A

Qualitative data methods.

62
Q

What are the qualitative methods used in an idiographic approach?

A

Rich, detailed written analysis,

Unstructured interviews, case studies and thematic analysis (closely examined common themes over a lot of data)

63
Q

What is an example of the idiographic approach?

A

Freud and Little Hans.
Freud investigated Little Hans, a child afraid of horses because he had a growing interest with his penis up until the point where his mum said she would have it cut off and Hans then developed castration anxiety.

64
Q

What is the nomothetic approach to psychological investigation?

A

Involves large numbers of people and then seeks to make generalisations or develop laws about their behaviour.

65
Q

What data methods does an nomothetic approach use?

A

Quantitative data methods.

66
Q

What are the quantitative data methods used in the nomothetic approach?

A

Measures of central tendency

Data from groups rather than individuals.

67
Q

What is an example of the nomothetic approach?

A

Behaviourist psychologists research into classical and operant conditioning, involved thousands of human ppts. Seeking 1 set of rules for all animals - humans/non-humans.

68
Q

A weaknesses of the nomothetic approach.

A
  • Questionnaire may not give a middle number.

- True / False questions, no inbetween.

69
Q

2 strengths of the idiographic approach.

A
  • New understanding/new findings of behaviour as open questions are asked.
  • Focus on individuals level. Humanistic/qualitative psychologists felt nomothetic psychology lost sight of what it was to be human.
70
Q

A weakness of the idiographic approach.

A

-Time consuming as you have to collect the data and then analyse.

71
Q

Strength/weakness of idiographic.

A

-Scientific basis, lack of objective evidence but idiographic methods are useful for positive psychology approaches that focus on evidence based

72
Q

Combining idiographic and nomothetic methods.

A

Using idiogrpahic to find a behaviour and then applying nomothetic to find generalisations of behaviour.

73
Q

What are the 4 aspects in the research process that Sieber and Stanley identified?

A
  • The research question
  • Conduct of research and treatment of ppts
  • The institutional context
  • Interpretation and application of findings
74
Q

What are 6/10 types of ethical issue that relate specifically to socially sensitive research?

A
  • Privacy
  • Confidentiality
  • Valid methodology
  • Deception
  • Informed consent
  • Equitable treatment
  • Scientific freedom
  • Ownership of data
  • Values
  • Risk/benefit ratio
75
Q

What is socially sensitive research?

A

Any research that might have a direct social consequence for ppts in the research or group that they represent.

76
Q

What is the research question to do with in 1/4 research processes?

A

The question may be intrusive and damage some groups because it appears to add scientific credibility to the prevailing prejudice.

77
Q

What is the conduct of research and treatment of ppts to do with in 1/4 research processes?

A

Main concern is the confidentiality of the research collected.

78
Q

What is the institutional context to do with in 1/4 research processes?

A

May lead to misuse/misunderstanding of data. Media Tf misreport findings

79
Q

What is the interpretation and application of findings to do with in 1/4 research processes?

A

Findings may be used for purposes other than originally intended. eg: IQ tests used to promote black stereotypes.

80
Q

One example of socially sensitive research.

A

IQ testing - are there racial differences in IQ?

81
Q

What is valid methodology?

A

In cases of poor methodology, scientists may be aware of this but the media is not. Thus poor studies might shape important social policy to the detriment of those groups.

82
Q

What are values in ethical issues?

A

Scientists seek general laws, whereas ppts interested in individuals. Socially sensitive issues arise when there is a clash in such values between scientist and recipient of research.

83
Q

What is scientific freedom?

A
  • Duty to engage in research

- Obligation not to harm ppts.

84
Q

What is the ownership of data?

A

Who owns data - ppts / investigator / media?

85
Q

What is equitable treatment?

A

Treating all ppts the same.

86
Q

Evaluation point

What can the wider impact of socially sensitive reseach be?

A

Increased potential for a more indirect impact on the ppts family, co-workers. Tf, researchers need to think beyond simply safeguarding interests of individual.

87
Q

Evaluation point

What is the inadequacy of current ethical guidlines.

A

Limitation of current ethical guidlines is that research may still inflict harm on group of people in society - strict guidlines in place but may still not deal with all possible ways in which research can inflict harm.

88
Q

Evaluation point

Socially sensitive research may disadvantage marginalised groups.

A

Marginalised groups disadvantaged, many groups in society have suffered the consequences of having been excluded from research or being misrepresented when have been included.

89
Q

Evaluation point

Should socially sensitive research just be avoided?

A

Sieber and Stanley suggest that to simply ignore sensitive research is not a responsible approach to science. Avoiding controversial topics such as race, homosexuality and gender is an avoidance of responsibility. Therefore psychologists have a duty to conduct such research.

Isaac's Psy YEAR 2 (10 decks)

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