Relationships Flashcards
Define sexual selection
An evolutionary explanation of partner preference. Attributes or behaviours that increase reproductive success are passed on and may become exaggerated in succeeding generations. This explains why disadvantageous characteristics may be passed on and hence determines which genes are passed due to heredity
Define human reproductive behaviour
This refers to any behaviours which relate to opportunities to reproduce and thereby increase the survival chances of our genes. It includes the evolutionary mechanisms underlying our partners preferences, such as mate choice and mate competition
What is anisogamy?
The idea that there are differences between male and female gametes. Male sperm are small, highly mobile, continuously created from young to old and do not require massive energy. Female ova are large, static, produced in intervals in a Iimited time and require a huge investment of energy
What are the consequences of anisogamy?
- No shortage of fertile males, but a fertile female is rare in comparison
- Reflects the two types of sexual selection
Define and describe the two types of sexual selection?
Intersexual selection is between the sexes and how one sex tries to be selected the other
intrasexual selection is between a sex and is how one member ensures they are picked over another
Explain intersexual selection
- Describes the strategies each sex uses to attract the other
- Quality over quantity and is hence preferred by females as they invest more into an ova and have more responsibility for the child
- Female is hence more choosy due to limited reproductive resources so enables high quality of offspring
Explain intrasexual selection
- Describes the straggles used within sexes to ensure being picked
- Quantity over quality approach preferred by males as they produce continuous gametes so is effective to impregnate as many females as possible to ensure passing on their genes
What is the sexy sons hypothesis?
- Coined by Fisher (1930)
- A female mates with a male who has a desirable characteristic to ensure sexy trait inherited by son
- Increases chance of successive generations of females mating with the offspring
- Example of intersexual selection
AO3: What is the research support for preferences being related to anisogamy?
- Buss (1989) carried out a survey of over 10,000 adults in 33 countries
- Asked Q’s about age and attributes that evolution says should be important
- Female respondents placed greater value on resource related characteristics and males on good looks and chastity
- Reflect sex differences in mate strategies due to anisogamy and hence support sexual selection theory
AO3: Why is there evidence to suggest it is incorrect that todays reproductive patterns have strong evolutionary basis’?
- Interactionist more likely
- Culture and evolution both have a role Chang (2011)
- Changing social and cultural norms mean women no longer place a large emphasis on resource (Bereczkei 1997) as are now more financially independent
- Some evolutionary pressures no longer apply
AO3: What is the evidence for sexual selection pressures continuing into modern times?
- Singh (1993)
- Hip to waist ratio of 0.7 demonstrates fertility and child bearing abilities and hence preferred by males
- Honest signal that is hard to fake but shows women is also not pregnant
- Some evolutionary pressures still exist today
AO3: What is the research support for intersexual selection?
- Greater energy input from females
- Clark and Hatfield (1989) showed female choosiness is a reality
- Male and female students on campus asked other students to sleep with them
- No female said yes, whereas 75% of men said yes
- Supports evolutionary basis as says females are choosier and males evolved differently
Define self-disclosure
Revealing personal information about yourself. Romantic partners reveal more about their true selves as their relationship develops. These self-disclosures of deep thoughts and feelings can supposedly strengthen a romantic bond when used appropriately
What is the place of self-disclosure in social penetration theory?
- Altman and Taylor (1973) of how a relationship develops
- Self disclosure in a relationship involves the reciprocating of deep thoughts and feelings
- When someone reveals information, it displays trust and the other partner must reciprocate and hence penetrate more deeply into each others lives
- However, it is important to choose what to disclose and when
Explain the breadth and depth concept of self-disclosure
- Second element of Altman and Taylor (1973)
- Onion analogy used to illustrate this. A relationship progresses and more layers of the onion are removed (we disclose lots of low risk info but superficially at the beginning)
- As the relationship progresses, self disclosure becomes deeper and more high risk information is revealed such as painful memories and strong beliefs
Why is reciprocity important in self-disclosure?
- Reis and Shaver (1988) pointed out that self-disclosure should be reciprocated to increase breadth and depth and hence the quality of a relationship
- We hope a partner responds with empathy and information about themselves to increase intimacy
AO3: What is the practical application of self-disclosure and its effect on attraction
- Hass and Stafford (1998)
- Researchers found that for couples with high intimacy and commitment, 57% reported self disclosure
- Supports the use of therapies and companies such as relate which focus on increasing depth and breadth of self-disclosure
- These are predicted by social penetration theory son also increase its validity
- Also applies to gay men so an advantage as does not only apply to heterosexual relationships
AO3: What is the support for self disclosure, but what is also a major problem with research into self-disclosure?
- Sprecher and Hendrick (2004) studies homosexual dating and found strong correlation between satisfaction and self-disclosure
- Laurenceua (2005) also found in diary entries that high intimacy and trust were correlated with self-disclosure
- Those who used self-disclosure more likely to be happy and more committed
- Correlation does not mean the variable of disclosure causes satisfaction. It could be argued the other way, or that a third variable is involved such as age
- Cannot be relied on
AO3: Why does self-disclosure research suffer from cultural differences?
- Prediction that breadth and depth leads to more intimacy may not be correct
- Tang (2013) reviewed research regarding self-disclosure around sexual practices
- Self disclosure higher in USA than China but both had high intimacy
- Hence is a limited explanation to relationships in only western cultures
Define physical attractiveness
An important factor in the formation of relationships. The term applies to how appealing we find someones face. General agreement is seen between cultures of what is considered attractive
Define matching hypothesis
The belief that we do not select the most attractive person as a prospective partner but instead are attracted to people who approximately match us in physical attractiveness. This implies we take into account our own value when seeking partners
What are the proposed ideas as to why physical attractiveness is important in the formation of a relationship?
- Evolutionary explanations such as Shackelford and Larsen (1997) who found symmetrical faces are rated as more attractive as it is an honest signal of genetic fitness
- Neotenous features as this suggests caring characteristics
- McNulty (2008) also found evidence that initial attractiveness that brought partners together was important even after marriage
Summarise the halo effect
- We have preconceived ideas about personality traits of attractive people that are almost universally positive
- Coined by Dion (1972) that what is beautiful is good
- Dion found attractive people were consistently rated as more kind, strong, sociable and successful making them more attractive
- Overall, the halo effect is the way one trait has a disproportionate influence on our judgement of a person
Summarise the matching hypothesis
- Walster (1966)
- Hypothesis states people choose partners of a similar attractiveness by comparing with our own value to a partner
- It is a balance between our most desirable attractive potentials and actually attaining a mate to reduce rejection
- Also reduces the disappointment of attaining a less attractive mate
AO3: Why may the halo effect have individual differences?
- Towhey (1979) asked male and female P’s to rate how much they would target an individual based on a photograph and biographical info
- MACHO scale completed (rates underlying sexist beliefs)
- High MACHO resulted in greater influence of physical attractiveness with low scores less sensitive
- Shows it is affected by other factors and so should not be considered significant in relationship formation
AO3: What its the evidence for physical attraction not being affected by culture?
- Cunningham (1995) found both cultures found similar features attractive
- These include large eyes, high eyebrows and sharp cheekbones
- Both Asian and Western male respondents showed this (Wheeler and Kim 1997)
- Means that although the influence of physical attractiveness may differ between individuals, what is considered attractive is relatively consistent between cultures
AO3: What is the real life practical application for halo effect?
- Palmer and Peterson (2012) found that even when P’s were presented with images of attractive people and told they had little knowledge of politics, they were still judged to have a good knowledge
- This has important implications on the state of politics where success may be more easily or accurately explained as a result of the halo effect rather than policy
