Relationships

Question 1

What is Cultural Bias?

Answer 1

• occurs when people from one culture make assumptions about the behaviour of those from another culture based on their own cultural norms and practices.

Question 2

What is Ethnocentrism?

Answer 2

• occurs when we use our own ethnic group as a basis for judgements about the other groups. We tend to view the beliefs and behaviours of our culture as ‘normal’ or superior. Those of other cultures are seen as ‘strange’ or deviant when theories are generalised to the whole population.

Question 3

what is imposed etic?

what is emic?

Answer 3

• When one imposes the values of their culture onto another culture which may result in misleading interpretations of observed behaviour.
• When you are studying the country you belong to but this may result in the failure to ignore individuals from subcultures within your country

Question 4

What is gender bias?

Answer 4

The treatment of men and women in psychological research in a way which offers a view of behaviour and experience that might not fully represent the characteristics of both genders.

Question 5

Types of gender bias…

1) Alpha bias
2) Beta bias
3) Androcentrism
4) Estrocentrism

Answer 5

1) The type of bias that assumes that there are real and enduring differences between males and females. It exaggerates the differences between men and women and implies one gender is better
2) This type ignores or minimizes sex differences. It exaggerates the similarity between men and women.
3) This type of bias takes male thinking as the norm, regarding female thinking as deviant or inferior when it is different
4) This is the opposite. It takes female thinking as the norm and regards male thinking as deviant.

Question 6

What are the consequences of gender bias?

Answer 6

• scientifically misleading findings, the risk of upholding stereotypical assumptions and validating prejudice and sex discrimination.

Question 7

FORMATION OF RELATIONSHIPS - Theory 1

The matching hypothesis - outline.

Answer 7

The MH refers to physical attractiveness. The idea is that we form a relationship with a partner of similar attractiveness to ourselves. Whilst we would like to form a relationship with someone of maximum attractiveness, we are aware of our own attractiveness so we act realistically and aim for someone who closely matches our level of of attractiveness.
Therefore…
Couples will be of similar levels of attractiveness; those of higher attractiveness will have higher expectations of attractiveness of their partner.
Couples who are well-matched in attractiveness are more likely to be happy and have enduring relationships than those who are mismatched.
People make realistic choices i.e. a compromise of what they want and what they can get, because each individual is influenced by the chances of having their affection reciprocated.

Question 8

FORMATION OF RELATIONSHIPS - Theory 1

MH - according to Murstein, why does physical attractiveness become a major determinant of courtship desirability?

Answer 8

• Because it is an accessible way for each partner to rate the other as a possible mate . We therefore tend to pick the best person available who is likely to accept us on the same basis and so try and avoid rejection by someone more attractive

Question 9

FORMATION OF RELATIONSHIPS - Theory 1

Research evidence for MH…
Walster…

Answer 9

Walster…University students bought tickets for the Fresher’s ball. They completed detailed questionnaires about themselves which the computer used in order to make an ideal match. The students were also rated for physical attractiveness and were in fact assigned a partner purely randomly. At the ball the men were asked whether they would ask their partner on a second date. The single most important factor that determined how likely it was that a woman would be asked out again was her physical attractiveness - regardless of how attractive the man was.

Evaluation: - does not support the MH. - gender bias as women were not asked. - Solution in the experiment was not like real life as they had no fear of rejection and were guaranteed a date therefore doesn’t test real life matching hypothesis and cannot harm the theory.

Question 10

FORMATION OF RELATIONSHIPS - Theory 1

Research evidence for MH…
Silverman…

Answer 10

• investigated matching which had already occurred. Couples were observed in naturalistic dating settings - bars, social events, theatre lobbies. 2 males and 2 females observed. The observed couples were 18-22 years old and unmarried and each observer rated the dating partner of the opposite sex on a five-point scale. There was very high degree of similarity between the attractiveness of the couple members. Also, the more similar their attractiveness, the happier they seemed to be with each other with 60% of highly similar, 46% of moderately similar and 22% of least similar appeared happy.

Evaluation: - high in ecological validity as it was a natural setting - supports MH - operationalization of happiness was subjective (lots of extraneous variables - other things could of caused sadness on that day) - we are not witnessing the formation of relationships.

Question 11

FORMATION OF RELATIONSHIPS - Theory 1

Research evidence for MH…
Murstein…

Answer 11

Murstein…
Photographs of faces of ‘steady or engaged’ couples were compared with random couples. The real couples were consistently judged to be more similar to each other in physical attractiveness then the random pairs.
This supports MH. BUT, attractiveness varies with actual interaction. Good support.

Question 12

FORMATION OF RELATIONSHIPS - Theory 1
MH evaluation.. IDA

MH fails to account for gender differences in the formation of relationships - how?

Answer 12

The MH may be culturally biased. It was developed in the USA where individuals are able to select their own partners and are therefore free to use physical attractiveness as a selection criterion. Assuming this is the same in every culture could lead to ethnocentrism. Eg arranged marriages in certain cultures, where attraction is not valued so highly. westerners may feel pity for those rather than considering this as a culturally relative phenomenon. This limits the generalisability of the MH as we cannot explain the formation of relationships in all cultures. To do so would be ethnocentric.
- It also has practical applications as it can help individuals looking for a partner or for dating agencies.

Takeuchi - shown that a gender difference exists in the degree to which physical attraction is valued by the opposite sex. Physical attraction is valued more heavily by men whilst physical attraction of men is valued is less heavily by women. This implies men can compensate for any deficit in physical attractiveness with other desirable qualities such as kindness it social status. The formation of relationships may be different to the MH females may focus on the personally traits and less driven by attractiveness. Therefor an alternative explanation is…The complex matching theory…
The idea that individuals can sometimes compensate for their lack of attractiveness by offering other desirable traits. A traditional type of complex matching is when an older, wealthy and successful man pairs up with a younger and attractive women.

Question 13

The filter model (Kerchhoff and Davis)…

Answer 13

The filter model argues that relationships develop through three filters to help us discard individuals, leaving us with only those who would suit us. K and D suggest we use a series of filters to narrow down the field of availables to the much smaller ‘field of desirables;

Filter 1 - This filter exerts its influence often without us even being aware of it. Most people tend to mix with others who are pretty similar to them in several ways - they live in the same area, go to college or work together. There is a small selection of people who often similar in educational and economic background, social, class and religious groups.

Filter 2 - This filter os applied once people start going out together. If the couple share ideas and beliefs, communication should be easier and the relationship may progress. However if they share different views about the world, the relationship os unlikely to progress. People at this stage with different interests and values are filtered out

Filter 3 - Once a couple have almost become established in a relationship, this third filter comes into play. Complementarity of needs refers to how well the two people fit together as a couple and meet each others needs. In this case opposites do attract - so if one partner has the emotional need to be dominant, someone who likes to be dominated would be more likely to chose to stay with this person.

Question 14

Filter model evaluation - research evidence.

Answer 14

Kerckhoff and Davis - tested their model using a longitudinal study of student couples who had been together for 18 months. They were asked to complete several questionnaires over a seven-month period in which they reported on attitude similarity and personality traits with their partner. It was found that attitude similarity was the most important factor up to about 18 months into a relationship. After this time, psychological compatibility and the ability to meet each others needs became important.
(Support for filter 2 and 3)

Sprecher - Found that couples who were matched in physical attractiveness, social background and interests were more likely to develop a long-term relationship.
often married to men who needed to be nurtured.

Question 15

Filter model evaluation - Methodological commentary and IDA and other.

Answer 15

1) All these studies are self report which results in the issue of social desirability - people may want their relationship to appear happy and successful. HOWEVER, the model doesn’t apply to homosexual coupes as they are not used in any of the studies.
2) IDA - Culturally bias cause there are cultures where you are not able to choose your partner. All the studies are based on the idea that you can choose who you love and marry.
3) The filter model is better than the MH because focusing on physical attractiveness alone is overly simplistic. There are also practical applications for dating agencies who can benefit from this model by matching people better.

Question 16

Maintenance of relationships - psychologists are not only interested in why relationships form, but also what keeps them going. Some relationships never seem to flourish , while are others are successful and long lasting.

1) Social Exchange Theory…

Answer 16

According to HOMANS, people weigh up the costs and benefits of an action before deciding what they do. In terms of relationships, we consider the actual and potential past, present and future rewards and costs before deciding whether to stay in a relationship.
The theory proposes that we are attracted to those who provide us with economic resources.
An important principle here is that ‘satiation’ which suggest something is in short supply, we appreciate it more - if a partner supplies something we are short of of instance social approve, then we are likely to find their company attractive.
- SET suggests that relationships involve the exchange of resources - the extent to which the relationship develops depends on how mutually beneficial the relationship is. The rewards associated with relationships are anything positive that make us feel valued e.g. gaining money or attention, pleasure. The costs involved in relationships are anything unpleasant e,g, financial costs, pain, disappointment, frustration. Females tend to see intimacy and self growth as rewards; males tended to emphasise sexual gratification as reward.

-In a relationship we try to minimise costs while maximising benefits. A relationship will be maintained as long as benefits outweigh the costs.
Whether your outcome is regarded as satisfactory depends on two facts: your comparison level and your comparison level for alternatives. Your comparison level is the standard by which all other relationships are judged, based on past experiences or relationships. The comparison level for alternatives depends on whether we believe that there is an alternative relationship that can proved is with a better outcome. This is likely to change over time as we experience different relationships or as the current relationship changes in terms of costs and benefits.
- In order to maintain a relationship the balance between costs and rewards must remain favourable to each party. Once we start investing more than we get out of it we may begin to question whether it is sensible to maintain that

Question 17

SET Evaluation..

1) Research evidence
2) IDA
3) Pracitcal applications

Answer 17

1) Rusbelt - used hetrosexual college students in a longitudinal study and found that peoples satisfaction, alternative and investments all predicted how committed they were to their relationship and whether it lasted. These findings have been supported by other researchers with different samples of both married couples and homosexual relationships and also in different cultures.

Floyd et al. (1994) found that commitment develops when couples are satisfied with and feel rewarded in a relationship and when they perceive that equally or more attractive alternative relationships are not available to them.

Clarke and mills - have distinguished between two types of relationship based on the norms of giving and receiving benefits. In communal relationships there is a principle concern for others needs and welfare so there is no expect ion for a benefit to be repaid. In exchange relationships, the benefits given by one partner in response to actual or possible benefits received in return. This suggests that SET , which emphasisse exchange norms, only applies to certain relationships.
.SET might only be able to explain relationships in individualistic cultures. Concepts of exchange, profit and loss are taken from capitalist economics and these concepts may permeate romantic relationships.

• SET sees people as fundamentally selfish, and views human relationships as based primarily on self-interest. Like many theories in psychology, SET offers us a metaphor for human relationships and should not be taken too literally. Humans are sometimes altruistic, making sacrifices for the sake of others without any consideration of the rewards they may obtain.

Question 18

Maintenance of relationships - psychologists are not only interested in why relationships form, but also what keeps them going. Some relationships never seem to flourish , while are others are successful and long lasting.

1) Social Exchange Theory…

Answer 18

According to HOMANS, people weigh up the costs and benefits of an action before deciding what they do. In terms of relationships, we consider the actual and potential past, present and future rewards and costs before deciding whether to stay in a relationship. An important principle here is that ‘satiation’ which suggest something is in short supply, we appreciate it more - if a partner supplies something we are short of of instance social approve, then we are likely to find their company attractive.
- SET suggests that relationships involve the exchange of resources - the extent to which the relationship develops depends on how mutually beneficial the relationship is. The rewards associated with relationships are anything positive that make us feel valued e.g. gaining money or attention, pleasure. The costs involved in relationships are anything unpleasant e,g, financial costs, pain, disappointment, frustration. Females tend to see intimacy and self growth as rewards; males tended to emphasise sexual gratification as reward.

-In a relationship we try to minimise costs while maximising benefits. A relationship will be maintained as long as benefits outweigh the costs. Individuasl will calculate the outcome of the relationship by using the formula - Outcome = Rewards -costs.
Whether your outcome is regarded as satisfactory depends on two facts: your comparison level and your comparison level for alternatives. Your comparison level is the standard by which all other relationships are judged, based on past experiences or relationships. The comparison level for alternatives depends on whether we believe that there is an alternative relationship that can proved is with a better outcome. This is likely to change over time as we experience different relationships or as the current relationship changes in terms of costs and benefits.

Question 19

Sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour - A01

The same fundamental process underlies natural and sexual selection; differential reproductive success as a result of heritable differences. The distinction does however, highlight the difference between the two types of adaptions…

Answer 19

Evolutionary psychologists claim that humans have evolved by the process of natural selection. Natural selection works on the basis that there is natural variation in traits. The mental and behavioural characteristics that lead to greater chances of survival persist and spread through a species.
The environment in which humans evolved is the environment in which our minds evolved. Therefore, the mind is adapted to problems that is faced in the environment of evolutionary adaption (EEA). This is means that our romantic and sexual relationships will be influenced by the fact that we are adapted to make choices in the EEA.
SEXUAL SELECTION:. The theory suggest that features that make an individual attractive to the opposite sex and help them compete successfully against members of their own sex will spread through a species also. e.g. the peacocks tail is large and prevent easy movement which makes them more vulnerable to predators however if females like extravagant tails, then there will be a runaway effect.

( The same fundamental process underlies natural and sexual selection; differential reproductive success as a result of heritable differences. The distinction does however, highlight the difference between the two types of adaptions… i) those that give a survival advantage ii) those that give a reproductive advantage.

Parental investment theory - Females invest more in their offspring because they produce fewer gametes while males produce more gametes. Females can I have a limited number of offspring in their lifetime, and their offspring a survival depends on high levels of investment; 9 months of carrying the foetus followed by extended period of infant care, including breast feeding up to 4 years. Men can have many more offspring without high levels of investment: they are not commited to carrying the foetus and do not have to stick around to help raise the child.
Fertilisation is internal i.e. is not possible to observe the moment of fertilisation which leads to greater maternal certainty than parental certainty: the mother can always be certain that any offspring she bears is hers, while the male can never be certain of this

If we combine these ideas we can drive a series of predictions about human reproductive behaviour, including differences between males and females relating to life in the EEA. The theory proposes three predictions.
1. women should be more choosier than men about who they mate with as, in the EEA, sex is very likely to lead to pregnancy.
2.Women are also more likely to consider characteristics that suggest the man is able and willing to provide resources to ensure the offsprings survival. This would also mean that the women show a preference for longer-term sexual relationships.
3.Conversely, men are likely to show more of an interest in short-term sexual liaisons as this will increase his chances of successfully impregnating a women. Men will be more reliant on external indicators of fertility e.g. attractive, young and healthy.
men who mated with many women will spread through a species.

Women choose between competing men, as their

Question 20

Sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour -

Answer 20

Evolutionary psychologists claim that humans have evolved by the process of natural selection, just like any other organism. Genes that lead to behaviour that enhances survival and reproduction will be inherited by offspring and will survive. This is the process of natural selection. Natural selection works on the basis that there is natural variation in traits. The mental and behavioural characteristics that lead to greater chances of survival persist and spread through a species.
The environment in which humans evolved is the environment in which our minds evolved. Therefore, the mind is adapted to problems that is faced in the environment of evolutionary adaption (EEA). This is means that our romantic and sexual relationships will be influenced by the fact that we are adapted to make choices in the EEA.
SEXUAL SELECTION: A puzzle for evolutionary theory is why some characteristics survive that seem to go against natural selection e.g. the peacocks tail - large and prevents easy movement making them more vulnerable to predators which suggests that any tendency towards fancy tails would be selected out. The answer is sexual selection. Features that make an individual more attractive to the opposite sex and help them to compete successfully against members of their own sex will spread through a species. Selective pressure will occur: if females like more extravagant tails then there will be a runaway effect. It is possible that the tail is a sign of good health.

(The same fundamental process underlies natural and sexual selection; differential reproductive success as a result of heritable differences. The distinction does however, highlight the difference between the two types of adaptions i) those that give survival advantage ii) those that give reproductive advantage. - Parental investment theory)

If we combine these ideas, we can derive a series of predictions about human reproductive behaviour, including differences between males and females relating to life in the EEA.

1. Women will be choosier than men about who they mate with as, in the EEA, sex is very likely to lead to pregnancy.
2. Women are also more likely to consider characteristics that suggest the man is able and willing to provide resources to ensure the offsprings survival.
3. Conversely, men are more likely to show more of an interest in short-term liaisons as this will increase chances of successfully impregnating a women.

Question 21

Prediction 1
Clark and Hatfield (1989)…
Gueguen (2011)…

Prediction 2…
Dunbar and Waynforth…
Buss…
Evaluation…

Answer 21

1) The aim was to investigate male/female differences in mating behaviour. On an American campus, an attractive stranger approached participants of the opposite sex, engaged them in conversation asked them a)to go out b) to go back to their home c) to have sex with them
Results showed that 50% of both men and women agreed to a date only 6% of females compared to 69% of males agreed to go back home and none of the women compared to 75% of men agreed to have sex.

Gueguan: replication in France - confederates of various levels of attractiveness approached real life strangers and asked if they would have sex with them. They found that 83% of men agreed to have sex with a highly attractive women and 60% of men agreed to have sex with a women of average attractiveness whilst only 3% of women said yes to a highly attractive man, and 0% to an average attractive man.

Evaluation.. - Attractiveness is subjective.
- May be offended
- culturally bias because in just focused on western societies
• Even lower in validity – trustworthiness would not always be assured when asking for casual sex.
Gueguen
• Individual differences – subjective opinions on what classes as highly attractive.
• External factors - For example, may already be in a relationship.

Dunbar and Waynforth… Looked at whether the content of lonely hearts adverts reflected evolutionary pressures to promote reproductive success. They did a content analysis of oersonal ads in four American newspapers. Men inclined indications of material wealth in their own descriptions 1.7 times more often than women whilst women asked for wealth in potential partner 4.5 more items than men. Females were twice as likely as males to provide info about their physical attractiveness and men aged 40-49 were most likely to express preferences for attractiveness. They conclude that human courtship is influenced by sexual selection preferences.

Buss.. Investigated the priorities of males and females in choosing a sexual partner using 10,000 people in 37 cultures and six continents and five islands. Men were much more likely to rate youth and good looks as extremely important, while females favoured a cluster of factors which included good financial prospects, ambition and older age.

Dunbar and Waynforth
• The results show that dating may be influenced by sexual selection preferences as men looked for attractiveness ( a sign of fertility) and women looked for wealth ( a sign they can provide for offspring)
• It was a large sample, increasing the reliability of the results
• They did not manipulate an IV, so had high ecological validity
• BUT: These were self report ads, validity may be lacking as people exaggerate their assets and underestimate their flaws
• Culture bias – can it be representative to all cultures?
• Individual differences – only a certain type of person uses lonely hearts -> stereotyping gender behaviours

Buss
• Increases validity of theory as cross cultural and high sample
• Females stated things which indicate someone ready to settle down
• Men still look for signs of fertility and ‘good genes’
• Therefore, priorities appear to be universal
• A limitation is that different culturesS rate different things as the priorities. So in the females this may decrease validity as we have no way of knowing how these factors were spread across the cultures.

Question 22

What is parental investment theory - one aspect of sexual selection theory.

Answer 22

Females invest more in their offspring because they produce fewer gametes while males produce more gametes. Females can I have a limited number of offspring in their lifetime, and their offspring a survival depends on high levels of investment; 9 months of carrying the foetus followed by extended period of infant care, including breast feeding up to 4 years. Men can have many more offspring without high levels of investment: they are not commited to carrying the foetus and do not have to stick around to help raise the child.
In addition, fertility is internal, therefore it is not possible to observe the moment of fertilisation. This leads to greater maternal certainty because the mother can always be certain that any offspring she bears is hers, while the male can never be certain.
The theory makes 3 predictions…

Question 23

Prediction 3
Singh et al….
Strassberg and holty…

Answer 23

Singh.. Aim was to investigate the waist to hip ratio in terms of attractiveness in females. The measurement of miss America pageant winners and playboy centrefolds over the previous 50 years were studied. Results found that factors like physique and body weight varied across the years, a WHR of around 0.7 was a consistent feature of female attractiveness. A WHR of 0.7 is associated by health status and therefore potentially better reproductive capacity. This preference in men is therefore adaptive in maximising reproductive potential.
Singh also did cross cultural research, examining the universality of relationships between between WHR and attractiveness and found ppts selected women with a low WHR as attractive, regardless of increase of decrease in BMI, suggesting the link between WHR and female attractiveness is due to adaption shaped by the selection process.

Strassberg and holty sent out adverts for 4 female seeking male adverts, each with different key words. Over 500 email responses were collected over 6 weeks and the most popular one was the women describing herself as financially independent, successful and ambition. This was 50% more popular than the one where the key words were lovely, slim e.c.t

Evaluation: - Singh did cross cultural research
- S and H used voluntary sample which can lead to a bias sample.
-

Question 24

Maintenance of relationships - THEORY 2 Equity theory - Outline.

Answer 24

This theory was formulated by Walster et Al in 1978 and claims that couples keep an eye on what both they and there partner are putting in and getting out of their relationship. If this is roughly equal, they are likely to feel reasonable satisfied with the relationship and it is therefore maintained. Equity is not the same as equality, if one partner puts more into the relationship, they should get more out of it, if this is not the case they feel exploited.
ET therefore predicts that a relationship in which a partner is over or under benefitted is less likely to be maintained. Those who are over benefited may feel guilty and uncomfortable and those under benefited may feel resentful and angry.

If an inequitable relationship has been long term the couple may be mitigated to repair the relationship but restoring equity. This could be done by 1) reducing inputs - putting less effort into the relationship or 2) increasing outputs but encouraging the other person to put more effort into the relationship

Question 25

Equity theory - evaluation AO2

Research evidence…
Evaluate…
Gender differences…
Cultural differences…a

Answer 25

1) Van Zperen and Buunk 1999 - longitudinal study using couples recruited by way of an advert in the local paper. 86% were married and the remainder were cohabiting - they obtained a score of equity in the relationship using Hatfields Global measurement of satisfaction and found that about 65% of men and women felt there relationship was equitable and 25% of men felt over benefited and the same number of women felt under benefited.
1 year later, the couples were asked about satisfaction in their relationships. Those who felt their relationship was equitable at stage 1 were most satisfied where as those who felt they were over benefited were next, and the under benefited were least satisfied.

Hatfield et al 1972 - they asked over 500 college men and women involved in romantic relationships to judge how equitable this relationship was. As predicted, after three months, students in inequitable relationships were most likely to have ended them

—- both pieces of research have the issue or social desirability and only correlational.
.

3) Cultural differences - Aumer-Ryan - Ppts were men and women from University of Hawaii, a relatively individualist culture and from Uni of West Indies in Jamaica, considered a more collectivistic culture. Findings showed that in both countries ppts considered equity to be critical importance in romantic relationships. This research suggests that equity is universally important. However a second finding was that the UH sample was more satisfied in their romantic relationships, especially when the relationship was equitable. However, the UWI sample found their relationships to be most satisfying when they were over-benefiting from their relationships. - Collectivist societies are happy to over benefit whereas individualists societies would feel guilty and uncomfortable about. This poses a problem to the theory as it can’t explain this difference; the theory suggest that individuals who feel over-benefited will feel unsatisfied in their relationships. in all cultures however it can’t explain the difference. This popes a problem for ET as it can’t explain this difference and is therefore limited in its generalizability.

Question 26

Sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour…. A02.

1) IDA
2) Gender bias

Answer 26

1) Evolutionary theory claims that our behaviour is the result of genetic inheritance. It ignores the influence of culture/the environment on our behaviour.
- Sexual selection theory ignores cultural diversity in behaviour in relationships, stressing the similarities across cultures and ignoring the variation between cultures e.g. monogamous vs polygamous marriage, arranged vs ‘love’ marriages. This suggest that evolutionary theories veer to far towards the nature side of the nature-nurtue debate.

2) The theory is also criticised for being gender bias. Critics argue that the heavy stress on sex differences in behaviour in relationships involves an alpha bias, exaggerating such differences and ignoring similarities between males and females. Critics also argue this exaggeration has an anti women agenda in that it legitimises immoral sexual behaviour. Males could argue that they can’t help being unfaithful, because its in their genes to want to sleep around! HOWEVER… Buss’s cross cultural research in 37 different cultures found that men seek kindness and intelligence as much as they seemed good looks or financial status. This goes against the alpha bias that men just want sexual liaisons.
This also leads onto the discussion of determinism as it justifies the male being unfaithful as it can be blamed on a natural evolutionary response.

Gender bias does not challenge the validity of the theory but has negative socially sensitive implications.

Question 27

Breakdown of relationships A01 - Rollie and Ducks model - outline.

Answer 27

Rollie and Ducks model describes six processes, each process with a distinct purpose. In order for the person to move from one process to the next, a threshold has to be reached.

1) Breakdown - one partner is increasingly dissatisfied
2) Intrapsychic - social withdrawal and resentment with the dissatisfied partner focusing on their partners ‘faults’ and a sense of being under balanced.
3) Dynamic - when partners begin talking to each other about the problems or perceived inequalities that one of them is unhappy.
4) Social - The break up is made public and advice and support from outside people is given.
5) Grave dressing - as a relationship dies we must create an account of how it came into being - what it was like and how it died.
6) Resurrection - How each partner prepares themselves for relationships afterwards. They must re create a sense of their own social partner

Question 28

Rollie and Ducks Model A02 - Breakdown of relationships.

1) Research evidence
2) IDA
3) Practical application

Answer 28

1) Research evidence - Duck 1982 points out tha t there are certain problems with researching relationship dissolution. Although it is possible to study relationships at a time when problems become apparent, this is not usually done for the fear that it may alter the course of events and perhaps precipitate a breakdown that may not of otherwise occurred. Therefore most breakdowns are studied in retrospect and it is possible that the very earliest stages of dissatisfaction tend not to be reported.
Tashiro and Frazier surveyed undergraduates who had recently broken up with romantic partners and found that they reported personal growth. These students reported that breaking up with their partners had given them new insights into themselves and a clearer idea about the future partners. Through grave dressing and resurrection processes they were able to get on with their lives.

2) The theory can also be criticised cause it cannot be applied universally. Relationships are individual and dynamic and do not necessarily all resemble reach other by going through al the stages at the same speed and in the same order In addition, the theory can be accused of being culturally specific, in that they only apply to certain groups of people in Western societies. It is unlikely, e.g. that the same processes apply for arranged marriages in non Western cultures.
3) Rollie and Ducks model stresses the importance of communication in relationship breakdown. Paying attention to the things that people say, the topics that they discuss and the ways in which they talk about their relationship offers both an insight into their stage and also suggest interventions appropriate to the stage. If the relationship was in the intrapsychic stage for example. repair may involve re-establishing liking for the partner.

Question 29

Sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour…. A02.

1) IDA
2) Gender bias

Answer 29

1) Evolutionary theory claims that our behaviour is the result of genetic inheritance. It ignores the influence of culture/the environment on our behaviour.
- Sexual selection theory ignores cultural diversity in behaviour in relationships, stressing the similarities across cultures and ignoring the variation between cultures e.g. monogamous vs polygamous marriage, arranged vs ‘love’ marriages. This suggest that evolutionary theories veer to far towards the nature side of the nature-nurtue debate.

2) The theory is also criticised for being gender bias. Critics argue that the heavy stress on sex differences in behaviour in relationships involves an alpha bias, exaggerating such differences and ignoring similarities between males and females. Critics also argue this exaggeration has an anti women agenda in that it legitimises immoral sexual behaviour. Males could argue that they can’t help being unfaithful, because its in their genes to want to sleep around! HOWEVER… Buss’s cross cultural research in 37 different cultures found that men seek kindness and intelligence as much as they seemed good looks or financial status. This goes against the alpha bias that men just want sexual liaisons.

Gender bias does not challenge the validity of the theory but has negative socially sensitive implications.

Question 30

Sex differences in Parental Investment -A01

Trivers Parental Investment theory

1) What is parental investment?
2) Discuss male and female investment?

Answer 30

1) Parental investment is any investment by the parent in an individual offspring that increase the offspring’s chance of survival (I.e. reproductive success).

The extent to which an adult will invest in a child is a consequence of what 3 things…
2) a. Whether and how closely the adults genetically related to the child.
b. How certain the adult is of genetic
relatedness
c. Possible number of offspring that can be produced.

Females invest more in their offspring because they produce fewer gametes while males produce more gametes. Females can I have a limited number of offspring in their lifetime, and their offspring a survival depends on high levels of investment; 9 months of carrying the foetus followed by extended period of infant care, including breast feeding up to 4 years. Men can have many more offspring without high levels of investment: they are not commited to carrying the foetus and do not have to stick around to help raise the child.
Fertilisation is internal i.e. is not possible to observe the moment of fertilisation which leads to greater maternal certainty than parental certainty: the mother can always be certain that any offspring she bears is hers, while the male can never be certain of this.

2) Male investment is relatively small - little time and energy as they do not carry the child just contribute their sperm through sexual intercourse.
- Females investment is substantial - eggs take time and energy to produce. They then carry the foetus for 9 months and must give birth at the end of it. They also must breastfeed and look after the infant until old enough to fend for him/herself. Females invest more because they produce fewer gametes while males produce more gametes. Females therefore have a limited number offspring in their lifetime, and their offspring’s survival depends on a high level of investment: at least 9 months of carrying the foetus followed by an extended period of infant care, including breastfeeding up to 4 years. Males can have many more offspring without high levels of investment.

This is adaptive because high levels of investment are essential for women’s reproductive success but not for man’s.

P

Question 31

Sex differences in Parental Investment A02

Trivers Parental Investment theory

• Geary 1998…
• Additional commentary on the cultural variation..

-Euler and Weitzel (1996)

Answer 31

• Geary 1998 - In humans, paternal investment is not essential for a man’s offspring to reach adulthood, and although the amount of time men spend in child care varies across cultures, Fathers spend less time interacting with and caring for their children than their mothers do in all cultures that were studied. This supports the idea that male investment is relatively small and higher levels of investment are essential for women’s reproductive success but not men’s.
• There is cultural variation in the sex ration i.e. the degree to which males contribute relative to the females contribution - this could pose a challenge for Trivers’ parental investment theory. Still, no society has been found in which the sex roles are genuinely reversed.
• Euler and Weitzel (1996) asked German adults to rate how much each biological grandparent had cared for them up until the age of seven. They found that maternal grandmothers provided more care for grandchildren than maternal grandfathers and paternal grandfathers while paternal grandfathers contributed least. This suggests that the amount of care received by grandchildren is influenced by parental uncertainty and maternal certainty - The paternal grandfathers have two degrees of uncertainty; he is uncertain that his child is his own and additionally his child is uncertain that their child is their own and therefore invest the least amount. Maternal grandmothers are certain that their child is their own and their child is also certain that their child is their own and therefore invest the most time.

Question 32

Sex differences in Parental Investment A02

1) Trivers Parental Investment theory contradictory evidence…
2) IDA point about gender bias

Answer 32

1) Anderson et al (1999) looked at the willingness of men to pay for their children’s college education as a means of assessing paternal investment strategies. Men were most willing to pay for their own child when they were still living with the child’s mother. Another finding was that men did not discriminate financially between a child born from a previous partner and a child born from a current partner. This constitutes a criticism because it demonstrates that a man is genetically related to the latter child but is only a stepfather to the former and did not discriminate between them - despite having more gametes, men are still equally committed to their children.
2) Gender bias - The parental investment theory is criticised for holding an Alpha bias as it exaggerates differences between males and females. The theory claims that since men can have many offspring, without high levels of investment, they will be less committed and less likely to stick around and help raise the child. This is an issue because it could exacerbate stereotyping suggesting all men are or will be an uncommitted and unreliable parent. This can lead to prejudice and discrimination especially in law cases of custody; if a father is fighting for the right to see his child, it is dangerous if the judge follows the parental investment theory and makes a bias decision in favour of the mother.

Question 33

Breakdown of relationships Theory 2 - Evolutionary explanations. A01

Evolutionary psychologists explain relationship breakdown in terms of factors that would have threatened reproductive success in the EEA. These evolved mechanism will differ in their significance for men and women, leading to differing behaviour. What are the possible 3 causes of relationship breakdown?

Answer 33

1) Infidelity - There is uncertainty as to whether or not the child is the mans. The man would be wasting resources on a child that’s not his and would be wasting time that he could spend impregnating other females to pass on his genes. For the women, the mans resources may be diluted or completely taken and focused on the other child.
2) Infertility - If one partner is infertile, the other one cannot spread their genes into the next generation.
3) Lack of economic support- If the man is unable to contribute economically, the women should split up from him - it may put the life of the offspring is at risk. If the relationship ended then she could search for someone who will provide economic support and guarantee the survival of their offspring.

Question 34

Breakdown of relationships Theory 2 - Evolutionary explanations. A02

1) Research evidence
2) IDA

Answer 34

1) Betzig did a cross cultural study of divorce, investigating marital breakdown using the Human resources Area Files, a huge collection of materials drawn from anthropological research conducted in a wide diversity of societies. She used a cross-cultural sample of 186 societies designed to be representative of world cultures. She found a list of reasons for divorce in rank-order
1) Infidelity
2)Infertility
3) Personality
4)Economics
5) In-laws
6)Absence
7) Health
This study supports the evolutionary explanations for the breakdown of relationships because it demonstrates that infidelity and infertility are the highest reasons for divorce which are two issues both concerned with the possibility of your genes not being passed on to the next generation. Economics come fourth which also provides support.
EVALUATION: In many societies only men are allowed to file for divorce which reduces the validity of the findings.

Bunk et al found that, as predicted by the model, men within the US have been shown to exhibit greater psychological and physiological distress to sexual that to emotional infidelity of their partner. Bunk examined sex differences in parallel studies conducted in the Netherlands, Germany and the US. Two key findings emerged 1) the sex differences in sexual jealousy are robust across cultures, providing support for evolutionary psychological model. Second, the magnitude of sex differences varies between cultures, large for the US, medium for Germany, and the Netherlands. This supports EEBR - men exhibit greater psychological and physiological distress to sexual than emtional infedility because if a women has sex with another man she may become pregnant with a child that is not his whist if a women is having an emotional relationships with another man he can provide her with further economic resources. A women shows more distress to emotional than sexual infidelity because the man is diluting his resources in more than just her. ]
EVALUATION: - They were asked to read a story about their partner having sex with someone else therefore the men heart rate may of increased due to arousal.

2) - The theory cannot explain certain cultural differences e.g. polygamous relationships or some cultures divorce is not possible. In addition, we cannot generalize this theory to all couples - According to evolution, there should not be Gay relationships or homosexual attraction and therefore they shouldnt exist or breakdown.
- It legitimizes men cheating and women ‘should’ not end relationships if they do. - Alpha bias.

Question 35

Effects of early experience - Theory 1 - Continuity hypothesis - A01

1) What is the Continuity hypothesis?
2) Discuss Hazan and Shavers love quiz?

Answer 35

1) The hypothesis suggests that an individuals relationship with their primary caregiver, provides a foundation for adult relationships by creating an internal working model. The internal working model is a template for further relationships based on childhood relationships with our primary caregiver - it shapes our attitudes and expectations for future relationships thus affects our attitude towards it.
- Ainsworth suggested that mothers of securely attached infants tended to be more sensitive to the child’s needs - more responsive, more co-operative and more accessible than mothers of either of the anxious types. These mothers provide a warm and close physical contact, especially when the infant is distressed. Ainsworth’s concept is called the Caregiver Sensitivity Hypothesis.

Ainsworth proposed that the caregivers of anxious-resistant infants were interested in them but misunderstood the infant’s behaviour. Of particular importance, these caregivers tended to be inconsistent in the way they treated their children. As a result, the infant is unable to rely on the caregiver’s emotional support.

Ainsworth reported that caregivers of anxious-avoidant infants were often impatient and/or uninterested, often rejecting them and tending to be self-centred and rigid in their behaviour. However, some caregivers of avoidant infants acted in a suffocating way, interacting with their infants even when the infants did not want any interaction.

These 3 types of attachment lead to 3 different Internal working models that lead to 3 different predictions for future romantic relationships.

2) Hazan and Shaver supported this theory with their love quiz experiment where participants were asked to complete a questionnaire on their attitudes towards love, reflecting on their history of romantic relationships. After analysis of the 600 questionnaires, the researchers found that the distribution of categories was similar to that observed in infancy - 56% classified themselves secure, 24% classified themselves as avoidant and about 20% described themselves as ambivalent resistant.
The results found that those were securely attached, made happy successful relationships, those who were avoidant resist, we’re independent in relationships with fewer romantic notions and finally those who were ambivalent avoidant were clingy and jealous, believing true love was rare. This research suggests that our future relationships are influences but our attachment type, providing support for the IDM.

Question 36

Effects of early experience - Theory 1 - Continuity hypothesis - A02

1) What are the methodological criticisms of H and S?
2) What research supports the IDM and what research doesn’t ?
3) Whats an alternative idea?
4) IDA

Answer 36

1) However, Hazan and Shaver have been criticized for their methodological issues. The research used self-report questionnaires when gathering the information which can result in the issue of social desirability, especially with a topic like romantic relationships where participants may want to portray their relationship in a certain way and therefore may shape their answer to seem in a happy, loving relationship. This weekend the validity of the research and suggests the IDM may not necessarily be true. In addition, there are dangers of retrospective recall - for one, it may be difficult remembering precise interactions and communication with your primary caregiver from days as an infant, and two, if an individual formed a later relationship that was secure for example, this could distort memory of childhood into being more secure that it really was. This would mean that the association between childhood and adult attachment might be more illusory than real.

2) IDM has been supported by research such as Wates et al (2000) who retested adults for their attachment type and found a high degree of stability with 72% of adults relieving the same classification as they did during infancy from the Strange Situation.
Lewis on the other hand reported much lower attachment stability from their longitudinal study. They compared the attachment classification of children at one year of age with their classification at 18 years and found a stability of 42%, no strong evidence for consistency over time was found.

3) Another factor to consider is that attachment styles might change as a consequence of experiencing different relationships. Whilst having one kind of partner might result in our displaying a secure attachment style, experiencing a partner might result in our displaying a secure attachment style, experiencing another partner may make us more anxious. (Campbell and Wilson 2003)
4) The theory is criticized for being deterministic as it suggests that the success of our current and future relationships is solely due to how our parents bring us up, with an attachment type we can’t change. Although this does not falsify the theory, it is a clear weakness as research such as lewis et al has demonstrated that early experience does not ‘doom’ someone to a particular kind of relationship in later life.
5) - Bowlbys theory of the IWM can also be criticised for being simplistic as it fails to account for possible innate factors for example Kagans Temperament Hypothesis - this argues that some infants are born with an innate personality that makes them more friendly and therefore it is easier for the mother to be caring and nurturing. An infant will be born either easy, slow to warm-up, or difficult. Difficult infants will have tricky personalities that make it less likely that the mother will want to comfort and nuture them. Kagan therefore believes that a child with an easy temperament may form secure relationships both in childhood and adulthood because of their temperament. In this case early experience may only look like it has affected adult relationships - it may temperament which has brought about the association between the two.

Question 37

Effects of early experience - Theory 2 - SLT - A01

Answer 37

SLT - Social Learning Theory can explain adult relationship style. In social learning theory Albert Bandura (1977) states behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning. Through OBSERVATION, Adolescents will observe levels of intimacy from their parents, siblings and role models by observing how they relate to one another. We then RETAIN a memory of this interaction e.g. we may retain a memory of our parents kissing and talking about their day at dinner. We then REPRODUCE the same behaviour when we feel confident that we are capable of imitating the observed action e.g. when we are in a relationship we do the same - kissing to great each other. It is more likely that this behaviour will be reproduced if we are MOTIVATED to. Two ways we are motivated is through 1) vicarious (observing the rewards your role model get from relationships ) reinforcement e.g. if the dad gives flowers to the mother and she is uplifted and happier for it, then the child will be motivated in their future relationships to do the same. 2) and positive reinforcement - Positive reinforcement is the addition of a reward following a desired behaviour so if our behaviour

Question 38

Effects of early experience - Theory 2 - SLT - A02

2) What is an issue with all of this research?

Answer 38

Kristina Moeller and Hakan Stattin (2001), “report that adolescents with trustful parental relationships experienced greater satisfaction with their partner relationships in midlife.” Trust is rooted in the social interactions of infancy and may imply that trust is a learned personality characteristic that people develop and subsequently carry from relationship to relationshipd that boys who shared an affectionate and trustful relationship with their fathers in adolescence felt greater satisfaction with this romantic partners in adulthood but the same was not true however for girls. M and S suggest that fathers socialised their sons to think and behave in ways that may later influence their expectations about intimacy and marriage. They suggested the girls may have other sources for learning such as friends and role models.

• Russel and Finnie - observed Australian pre-school children with their mothers in a situation where the child was introduced to unfamiliar peers, and found children classed as ‘popular’ had mothers who suggested strategies to help the child interact with other children and to ease them into the group. In contrast, children classified as neglected had mothers who tended to encourage their child to play with toys and materials but did not offer ways of helping them interact. This demonstrates how parental behaviour is repeated in the child and social skills from the parent are learnt and replicated by the child.
  2) No evidence for observation - all these studies are parent-child, they are not observing, theres no evidence but instead they are learning them through interaction so research doesn’t necessarily support SLT.

IDA - 1) It is good because it can explain cultural differences - Family structures may vary and SLT can therefore explain why different relationships may form in different cultures where family structures are different. For example in more Asian cultures, extended families are more important and often live together in shared housing - this could be another source of interaction to learn from.

2) HOWEVER, in concern with the nature-nurture debate, its all concerned with nurture and does not consider our genetic make-up. Critics argue that SLT is environmentally deterministic which can be problematic as we may feel we are r

Question 39

The influence of culture on romantic relationships - A01

1) define culture?
2) Hofstede proposed that most cultures in the world can be ranked on a continuum between these two poles. What are they?
3) what are the differences in terms of relationships?

Answer 39

1) The set of shared attitudes, values, goals and practices that characterises an institution, organisation or group. A culture is shared by a group of people and is acquire or learnt by others. It teaches us th norms and values of behaviour including the development of relationships and love.

2) Individualist - emphasis on the individual, there rights goals and aspirations. It focuses on I rather than we and the goals of the individual rather than society most likely to be Western capitalist societies e.g UK USA
- Collectivist - emphasis on collective responsibility, wider society and interdependence ties to others. It focuses on we rather than i and more likely to be Eastern non capitalist societies e.g Pakistan

3) In individualist cultures, there is a focus on love. Individuals choose their partner and their is less expectation of permanence. Romantic relationships sound be VOLUNTARY, TEMPORARY and based on LOVE
- In collectivist cultures, there is a stress on responsibility to family, and arranged marriages usually take place with greater expectation on permanence. Romantic relationships should be PERMANENT, ARRANGED

Question 40

How does culture influence romantic relationships? A01

1) what is romantic love and what do we expect from love?

Answer 40

1) The set of shared attitudes, values, goals and practices that characterises an institution, organisation or group. A culture is shared by a group of people and is acquire or learnt by others. It teaches us th norms and values of behaviour including the development of relationships and love.

Romantic love is the feeling of warm attachment and deep affection for another individual, combined with sexual desire/ attraction; desire to be with that person.
Hofstede claims that all cultures can be placed on a continuum between collectivist and individualist cultures.

2) Individualist - emphasis on the individual, there rights goals and aspirations. It focuses on I rather than we and the goals of the individual rather than society most likely to be Western capitalist societies e.g UK USA
- Collectivist - emphasis on collective responsibility, wider society and interdependence ties to others. It focuses on we rather than i and more likely to be Eastern non capitalist societies e.g Pakistan

3) In individualist cultures, there is a focus on love. Individuals choose their partner and their is less expectation of permanence. Romantic relationships sound be VOLUNTARY, TEMPORARY and based on LOVE
- In collectivist cultures, there is a stress on responsibility to family, and arranged marriages usually take place with greater expectation on permanence. Romantic relationships should be PERMANENT, ARRANGED

Cultural transmission exposes us to cultural values e.g. fairy tales, films, storeys which gives us an idea or expectation for how our romantic relationships will evolve. There are 3 different ways cultural transmission can influence out romantic relationships…

1) Social learning - we observe what others do in our society and observe the positive and negative consequences of behaviour. Without having to experience the negative consequences of being different, we can learn behaviours from others. The media is a major source if social learning m, as are people we perceive to be similar to us, of high status in nurturing.
2) Socialisation: people are raised in different ways in different societies so that they have different norms values and expectations about life, including relationships. Cultures are physically isolated so we have little opportunity to see what behaviour is the norm in different societies. Even if we do, we tend to be so well sicislised that others behaviour looks odd to us
3) Conformity- people are generally conformist, in that they see what others in their society do as normal and want to fit in. Often there are negative consequences for not conforming to the norm. We use others as a source of info about what is beneficial to us

Question 41

Effects of early experience - Theory 2 - SLT - A01

Answer 41

SLT - Social Learning Theory can explain adult relationship style. In social learning theory Albert Bandura (1977) states behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning. Through OBSERVATION, Adolescents will observe levels of intimacy from their parents, siblings and role models by observing how they relate to one another. We then RETAIN a memory of this interaction e.g. we may retain a memory of our parents kissing and talking about their day at dinner. We then REPRODUCE the same behaviour when we feel confident that they are capable of imitating the observed action e.g. when we are in a relationship we do the same - kissing to great each other. It is more likely that this behaviour will be reproduced if we are MOTIVATED to. Two ways we are motivated is through 1) vicarious (observing the rewards your role model get from relationships ) reinforcement e.g. if the dad gives flowers to the mother and she is uplifted and happier for it, then the child will be motivated in their future relationships to do the same. 2) and positive reinforcement - Positive reinforcement is the addition of a reward following a desired behaviour so if our behaviour

Question 42

Effects of early experience - Theory 2 - SLT - A02

2) What is an issue with all of this research?

Answer 42

• Gray and Steinberg (1999) - Report how adolescents who are raised in an environment where there parents treat them with warmth and are emotionally available , may be better prepared for relationships and intimacy when they are adults. This demonstrate that the parents have transmitted ideas about opposite -sex relationships to their children through the process of modelling. They acquired a mental representation and copied this behaviour when they were older.

Kristina Moeller and Hakan Stattin (2001), “report that adolescents with trustful parental relationships experienced greater satisfaction with their partner relationships in midlife.” Trust is rooted in the social interactions of infancy and may imply that trust is a learned personality characteristic that people develop and subsequently carry from relationship to relationshipd that boys who shared an affectionate and trustful relationship with their fathers in adolescence felt greater satisfaction with this romantic partners in adulthood but the same was not true however for girls. M and S suggest that fathers socialised their sons to think and behave in ways that may later influence their expectations about intimacy and marriage. They suggested the girls may have other sources for learning such as friends and role models.

• Russel and Finnie - observed Australian pre-school children with their mothers in a situation where the child was introduced to unfamiliar peers, and found children classed as ‘popular’ had mothers who suggested strategies to help the child interact with other children and to ease them into the group. In contrast, children classified as neglected had mothers who tended to encourage their child to play with toys and materials but did not offer ways of helping them interact. This demonstrates how parental behaviour is repeated in the child and social skills from the parent are learnt and replicated by the child.
  2) No evidence for observation - all these studies are parent-child, they are not observing, theres no evidence but instead they are learning them through interaction so research doesn’t necessarily support SLT.

IDA - 1) It is good because it can explain cultural differences - Family structures may vary and SLT can therefore explain why different relationships may form in different cultures where family structures are different. For example in more Asian cultures, extended families are more important and often live together in shared housing - this could be another source of interaction to learn from.

2) HOWEVER, in concern with the nature-nurture debate, its all concerned with nurture and does not consider our genetic make-up. Critics argue that SLT is environmentally deterministic which can be problematic as we may feel we are r

Question 43

The influence of culture on romantic relationships - A02

1) define culture?
2) Hofstede proposed that most cultures in the world can be ranked on a continuum between these two poles. What are they?
3) what are the differences in terms of relationships?

Answer 43

1) The set of shared attitudes, values, goals and practices that characterises an institution, organisation or group. A culture is shared by a group of people and is acquire or learnt by others.

2) Individualist - emphasis on the individual, there rights goals and aspirations. It focuses on I rather than we and the goals of the individual rather than society most likely to be Western capitalist societies e.g UK USA
Collectivist - emphasis on collective responsibility, wider society and interdependence ties to others. It focuses on we rather than i and more likely to be Eastern non capitalist societies e.g Pakistan

3) In individualist cultures, there is a focus on love. Individuals choose their partner and their is less expectation of permanence. Romantic relationships sound be VOLUNTARY, TEMPORARY and based on LOVE
In collectivist cultures, there is a stress on responsibility to family, and arranged marriages usually take place with greater expectation on permanence. Romantic relationships should be PERMANENT, ARRANGED

Question 44

How does culture influence romantic relationships? A01
1) what is romantic love and what do we expect from love?

2) Cultural transmission exposes is to cultural values - fairy tales films, studies ect Describe the 3 different types of cultural transmission?

Answer 44

(Romantic love is the feeling of warm attachment and deep affection for another individual, combined with sexual desire/ attraction; desire to be with that person.
We expect to fall in love, form relationships and if it lasts get married. We may fall out of love and the relationship will end and we are likely to fall in love with another.)

1) Social learning - we observe what others do in our society and observe the positive and negative consequences of behaviour. Without having to experience the negative consequences of being different, we can learn behaviours from others. The media is a major source if social learning m, as are people we perceive to be similar to us, of high status in nurturing.

Socialisation: people are raised in different ways in different societies so that they have different norms values and expectations about life, including relationships. Cultures are physically isolated so we have little opportunity to see what behaviour is the norm in different societies. Even if we do, we tend to be so well sicislised that others behaviour looks odd to us

Conformity- people are generally conformist, in that they see what others in their society do as normal and want to fit in. Often there are negative consequences for not conforming to the norm. We use others as a source of info about what is beneficial to us

Question 45

The influence of culture on romantic relationships -A02

3 research evidence..

Further general commentary (the issue of temporal shift) (cross cultural research)

Answer 45

Zaidi and Shuraydi Canada 2002- to investigate attitudes to voluntary versus involuntary marriages. Participants were 20 single women, second generation Pakistani Muslims born on Canada. Findings found that most favoured Westernised marriage practices involving greater amounts of partner choice. Most said their farthers were resistant to change and wanted their daughters to have an arranged marriage. This supports the distinction and shows that influence of cultural heritage and norms on beliefs about marriage; women were more exposed to Wesrerb norms whilst grown ups and conformed to the western goals for relationships whilst fathers are likely to have experienced fewer conformity pressures so possible to stick to their old values.

le Vine et Al - aimed to investigate people’s attitudes to marriage without love. Make and female participants in 11 countries were asked the following question: if someone has all the other qualities you desired in a marriage partner, would you marry this person if you were not in love? In collectivist cultures there was a higher percentage of yes answers (49% in India) compared to individualist cultures (3.5% in the U.S. and 7.3% In theUK). This supports distinction, shows again the influence of cultural norms and values about marriage - cultural norm in collectivist cultures is arranged marriage.

The issue of temporal shift: Emphasis of geographical difference between collectivist and individualist cultures is misleading and can lead to ethnocentrism - it getting that Western cultures were also dominated by collectivist values in our recent history.
- This links to economic development and media influences - capitalist values in Western societies - we can expect globalisation and urbanisation I have a similar effect in collectivist cultures (arranged marriage types are already becoming more flexible)

Cross- cultural research has many methodological problems 1) sampling issues - ppts may not be representative of the culture studied - this could mean that there are actually greater individual differences within cultures rather than broad differences between cultures. 2) self report - often used to study marital satisfaction - by its nature biased leading to reduced validity of research - so research only had limited use in supporting an argument

Question 46

Evaluate 1) Zaidi and Shuraydi

2) Le vine et Al 3) Moore and Leung

Answer 46

1) Zaidi and Shuraydi - Small sample of 20 females and can be accused of Alpha bias only looking at Fathers not Mothers and havnt interviews their fathers. Therefore low population validity and we cannot generalise. They used interviews which is beneficial for establishing a rapport but could lead to the issue of social desirability.
2) 11 different countries therefore increased pop validity. However only asked under-grads therefore it’s not a representative sample as there is a whole different culture among under grads. In addition there is a problem with open questions as interpretation means answers may depend on each ppts subjective interpretation. This makes it less valid.
3) ) self report questionnaire leads to the issue of social desirability however cross cultural.