Relationships Flashcards

Question

Equity theory - evaluation AO2 Research evidence... Evaluate... Gender differences… Cultural differences...a

Answer 1

1) Van Zperen and Buunk 1999 - longitudinal study using couples recruited by way of an advert in the local paper. 86% were married and the remainder were cohabiting - they obtained a score of equity in the relationship using Hatfields Global measurement of satisfaction and found that about 65% of men and women felt there relationship was equitable and 25% of men felt over benefited and the same number of women felt under benefited. 1 year later, the couples were asked about satisfaction in their relationships. Those who felt their relationship was equitable at stage 1 were most satisfied where as those who felt they were over benefited were next, and the under benefited were least satisfied. Hatfield et al 1972 - they asked over 500 college men and women involved in romantic relationships to judge how equitable this relationship was. As predicted, after three months, students in inequitable relationships were most likely to have ended them ---- both pieces of research have the issue or social desirability and only correlational. . 3) Cultural differences - Aumer-Ryan - Ppts were men and women from University of Hawaii, a relatively individualist culture and from Uni of West Indies in Jamaica, considered a more collectivistic culture. Findings showed that in both countries ppts considered equity to be critical importance in romantic relationships. This research suggests that equity is universally important. However a second finding was that the UH sample was more satisfied in their romantic relationships, especially when the relationship was equitable. However, the UWI sample found their relationships to be most satisfying when they were over-benefiting from their relationships. - Collectivist societies are happy to over benefit whereas individualists societies would feel guilty and uncomfortable about. This poses a problem to the theory as it can't explain this difference; the theory suggest that individuals who feel over-benefited will feel unsatisfied in their relationships. in all cultures however it can't explain the difference. This popes a problem for ET as it can't explain this difference and is therefore limited in its generalizability.

Answer 2

1) Evolutionary theory claims that our behaviour is the result of genetic inheritance. It ignores the influence of culture/the environment on our behaviour. - Sexual selection theory ignores cultural diversity in behaviour in relationships, stressing the similarities across cultures and ignoring the variation between cultures e.g. monogamous vs polygamous marriage, arranged vs 'love' marriages. This suggest that evolutionary theories veer to far towards the nature side of the nature-nurtue debate. 2) The theory is also criticised for being gender bias. Critics argue that the heavy stress on sex differences in behaviour in relationships involves an alpha bias, exaggerating such differences and ignoring similarities between males and females. Critics also argue this exaggeration has an anti women agenda in that it legitimises immoral sexual behaviour. Males could argue that they can't help being unfaithful, because its in their genes to want to sleep around! HOWEVER… Buss's cross cultural research in 37 different cultures found that men seek kindness and intelligence as much as they seemed good looks or financial status. This goes against the alpha bias that men just want sexual liaisons. This also leads onto the discussion of determinism as it justifies the male being unfaithful as it can be blamed on a natural evolutionary response. Gender bias does not challenge the validity of the theory but has negative socially sensitive implications.

Answer 3

Rollie and Ducks model describes six processes, each process with a distinct purpose. In order for the person to move from one process to the next, a threshold has to be reached. 1) Breakdown - one partner is increasingly dissatisfied 2) Intrapsychic - social withdrawal and resentment with the dissatisfied partner focusing on their partners 'faults' and a sense of being under balanced. 3) Dynamic - when partners begin talking to each other about the problems or perceived inequalities that one of them is unhappy. 4) Social - The break up is made public and advice and support from outside people is given. 5) Grave dressing - as a relationship dies we must create an account of how it came into being - what it was like and how it died. 6) Resurrection - How each partner prepares themselves for relationships afterwards. They must re create a sense of their own social partner

Answer 4

1) Research evidence - Duck 1982 points out tha t there are certain problems with researching relationship dissolution. Although it is possible to study relationships at a time when problems become apparent, this is not usually done for the fear that it may alter the course of events and perhaps precipitate a breakdown that may not of otherwise occurred. Therefore most breakdowns are studied in retrospect and it is possible that the very earliest stages of dissatisfaction tend not to be reported. Tashiro and Frazier surveyed undergraduates who had recently broken up with romantic partners and found that they reported personal growth. These students reported that breaking up with their partners had given them new insights into themselves and a clearer idea about the future partners. Through grave dressing and resurrection processes they were able to get on with their lives. 2) The theory can also be criticised cause it cannot be applied universally. Relationships are individual and dynamic and do not necessarily all resemble reach other by going through al the stages at the same speed and in the same order In addition, the theory can be accused of being culturally specific, in that they only apply to certain groups of people in Western societies. It is unlikely, e.g. that the same processes apply for arranged marriages in non Western cultures. 3) Rollie and Ducks model stresses the importance of communication in relationship breakdown. Paying attention to the things that people say, the topics that they discuss and the ways in which they talk about their relationship offers both an insight into their stage and also suggest interventions appropriate to the stage. If the relationship was in the intrapsychic stage for example. repair may involve re-establishing liking for the partner.

Answer 5

1) Evolutionary theory claims that our behaviour is the result of genetic inheritance. It ignores the influence of culture/the environment on our behaviour. - Sexual selection theory ignores cultural diversity in behaviour in relationships, stressing the similarities across cultures and ignoring the variation between cultures e.g. monogamous vs polygamous marriage, arranged vs 'love' marriages. This suggest that evolutionary theories veer to far towards the nature side of the nature-nurtue debate. 2) The theory is also criticised for being gender bias. Critics argue that the heavy stress on sex differences in behaviour in relationships involves an alpha bias, exaggerating such differences and ignoring similarities between males and females. Critics also argue this exaggeration has an anti women agenda in that it legitimises immoral sexual behaviour. Males could argue that they can't help being unfaithful, because its in their genes to want to sleep around! HOWEVER… Buss's cross cultural research in 37 different cultures found that men seek kindness and intelligence as much as they seemed good looks or financial status. This goes against the alpha bias that men just want sexual liaisons. Gender bias does not challenge the validity of the theory but has negative socially sensitive implications.

Answer 6

1) Parental investment is any investment by the parent in an individual offspring that increase the offspring's chance of survival (I.e. reproductive success). The extent to which an adult will invest in a child is a consequence of what 3 things... 2) a. Whether and how closely the adults genetically related to the child. b. How certain the adult is of genetic relatedness c. Possible number of offspring that can be produced. Females invest more in their offspring because they produce fewer gametes while males produce more gametes. Females can I have a limited number of offspring in their lifetime, and their offspring a survival depends on high levels of investment; 9 months of carrying the foetus followed by extended period of infant care, including breast feeding up to 4 years. Men can have many more offspring without high levels of investment: they are not commited to carrying the foetus and do not have to stick around to help raise the child. Fertilisation is internal i.e. is not possible to observe the moment of fertilisation which leads to greater maternal certainty than parental certainty: the mother can always be certain that any offspring she bears is hers, while the male can never be certain of this. 2) Male investment is relatively small - little time and energy as they do not carry the child just contribute their sperm through sexual intercourse. - Females investment is substantial - eggs take time and energy to produce. They then carry the foetus for 9 months and must give birth at the end of it. They also must breastfeed and look after the infant until old enough to fend for him/herself. Females invest more because they produce fewer gametes while males produce more gametes. Females therefore have a limited number offspring in their lifetime, and their offspring's survival depends on a high level of investment: at least 9 months of carrying the foetus followed by an extended period of infant care, including breastfeeding up to 4 years. Males can have many more offspring without high levels of investment. This is adaptive because high levels of investment are essential for women's reproductive success but not for man's. P

Answer 7

- Geary 1998 - In humans, paternal investment is not essential for a man's offspring to reach adulthood, and although the amount of time men spend in child care varies across cultures, Fathers spend less time interacting with and caring for their children than their mothers do in all cultures that were studied. This supports the idea that male investment is relatively small and higher levels of investment are essential for women's reproductive success but not men's. - There is cultural variation in the sex ration i.e. the degree to which males contribute relative to the females contribution - this could pose a challenge for Trivers' parental investment theory. Still, no society has been found in which the sex roles are genuinely reversed. - Euler and Weitzel (1996) asked German adults to rate how much each biological grandparent had cared for them up until the age of seven. They found that maternal grandmothers provided more care for grandchildren than maternal grandfathers and paternal grandfathers while paternal grandfathers contributed least. This suggests that the amount of care received by grandchildren is influenced by parental uncertainty and maternal certainty - The paternal grandfathers have two degrees of uncertainty; he is uncertain that his child is his own and additionally his child is uncertain that their child is their own and therefore invest the least amount. Maternal grandmothers are certain that their child is their own and their child is also certain that their child is their own and therefore invest the most time.

Answer 8

1) Anderson et al (1999) looked at the willingness of men to pay for their children's college education as a means of assessing paternal investment strategies. Men were most willing to pay for their own child when they were still living with the child's mother. Another finding was that men did not discriminate financially between a child born from a previous partner and a child born from a current partner. This constitutes a criticism because it demonstrates that a man is genetically related to the latter child but is only a stepfather to the former and did not discriminate between them - despite having more gametes, men are still equally committed to their children. 2) Gender bias - The parental investment theory is criticised for holding an Alpha bias as it exaggerates differences between males and females. The theory claims that since men can have many offspring, without high levels of investment, they will be less committed and less likely to stick around and help raise the child. This is an issue because it could exacerbate stereotyping suggesting all men are or will be an uncommitted and unreliable parent. This can lead to prejudice and discrimination especially in law cases of custody; if a father is fighting for the right to see his child, it is dangerous if the judge follows the parental investment theory and makes a bias decision in favour of the mother.

Answer 9

1) Infidelity - There is uncertainty as to whether or not the child is the mans. The man would be wasting resources on a child that's not his and would be wasting time that he could spend impregnating other females to pass on his genes. For the women, the mans resources may be diluted or completely taken and focused on the other child. 2) Infertility - If one partner is infertile, the other one cannot spread their genes into the next generation. 3) Lack of economic support- If the man is unable to contribute economically, the women should split up from him - it may put the life of the offspring is at risk. If the relationship ended then she could search for someone who will provide economic support and guarantee the survival of their offspring.

Answer 10

1) Betzig did a cross cultural study of divorce, investigating marital breakdown using the Human resources Area Files, a huge collection of materials drawn from anthropological research conducted in a wide diversity of societies. She used a cross-cultural sample of 186 societies designed to be representative of world cultures. She found a list of reasons for divorce in rank-order 1) Infidelity 2)Infertility 3) Personality 4)Economics 5) In-laws 6)Absence 7) Health This study supports the evolutionary explanations for the breakdown of relationships because it demonstrates that infidelity and infertility are the highest reasons for divorce which are two issues both concerned with the possibility of your genes not being passed on to the next generation. Economics come fourth which also provides support. EVALUATION: In many societies only men are allowed to file for divorce which reduces the validity of the findings. Bunk et al found that, as predicted by the model, men within the US have been shown to exhibit greater psychological and physiological distress to sexual that to emotional infidelity of their partner. Bunk examined sex differences in parallel studies conducted in the Netherlands, Germany and the US. Two key findings emerged 1) the sex differences in sexual jealousy are robust across cultures, providing support for evolutionary psychological model. Second, the magnitude of sex differences varies between cultures, large for the US, medium for Germany, and the Netherlands. This supports EEBR - men exhibit greater psychological and physiological distress to sexual than emtional infedility because if a women has sex with another man she may become pregnant with a child that is not his whist if a women is having an emotional relationships with another man he can provide her with further economic resources. A women shows more distress to emotional than sexual infidelity because the man is diluting his resources in more than just her. ] EVALUATION: - They were asked to read a story about their partner having sex with someone else therefore the men heart rate may of increased due to arousal. 2) - The theory cannot explain certain cultural differences e.g. polygamous relationships or some cultures divorce is not possible. In addition, we cannot generalize this theory to all couples - According to evolution, there should not be Gay relationships or homosexual attraction and therefore they shouldnt exist or breakdown. - It legitimizes men cheating and women 'should' not end relationships if they do. - Alpha bias.

Answer 11

1) The hypothesis suggests that an individuals relationship with their primary caregiver, provides a foundation for adult relationships by creating an internal working model. The internal working model is a template for further relationships based on childhood relationships with our primary caregiver - it shapes our attitudes and expectations for future relationships thus affects our attitude towards it. - Ainsworth suggested that mothers of securely attached infants tended to be more sensitive to the child’s needs - more responsive, more co-operative and more accessible than mothers of either of the anxious types. These mothers provide a warm and close physical contact, especially when the infant is distressed. Ainsworth’s concept is called the Caregiver Sensitivity Hypothesis. Ainsworth proposed that the caregivers of anxious-resistant infants were interested in them but misunderstood the infant’s behaviour. Of particular importance, these caregivers tended to be inconsistent in the way they treated their children. As a result, the infant is unable to rely on the caregiver’s emotional support. Ainsworth reported that caregivers of anxious-avoidant infants were often impatient and/or uninterested, often rejecting them and tending to be self-centred and rigid in their behaviour. However, some caregivers of avoidant infants acted in a suffocating way, interacting with their infants even when the infants did not want any interaction. These 3 types of attachment lead to 3 different Internal working models that lead to 3 different predictions for future romantic relationships. 2) Hazan and Shaver supported this theory with their love quiz experiment where participants were asked to complete a questionnaire on their attitudes towards love, reflecting on their history of romantic relationships. After analysis of the 600 questionnaires, the researchers found that the distribution of categories was similar to that observed in infancy - 56% classified themselves secure, 24% classified themselves as avoidant and about 20% described themselves as ambivalent resistant. The results found that those were securely attached, made happy successful relationships, those who were avoidant resist, we're independent in relationships with fewer romantic notions and finally those who were ambivalent avoidant were clingy and jealous, believing true love was rare. This research suggests that our future relationships are influences but our attachment type, providing support for the IDM.

Answer 12

1) However, Hazan and Shaver have been criticized for their methodological issues. The research used self-report questionnaires when gathering the information which can result in the issue of social desirability, especially with a topic like romantic relationships where participants may want to portray their relationship in a certain way and therefore may shape their answer to seem in a happy, loving relationship. This weekend the validity of the research and suggests the IDM may not necessarily be true. In addition, there are dangers of retrospective recall - for one, it may be difficult remembering precise interactions and communication with your primary caregiver from days as an infant, and two, if an individual formed a later relationship that was secure for example, this could distort memory of childhood into being more secure that it really was. This would mean that the association between childhood and adult attachment might be more illusory than real. 2) IDM has been supported by research such as Wates et al (2000) who retested adults for their attachment type and found a high degree of stability with 72% of adults relieving the same classification as they did during infancy from the Strange Situation. Lewis on the other hand reported much lower attachment stability from their longitudinal study. They compared the attachment classification of children at one year of age with their classification at 18 years and found a stability of 42%, no strong evidence for consistency over time was found. 3) Another factor to consider is that attachment styles might change as a consequence of experiencing different relationships. Whilst having one kind of partner might result in our displaying a secure attachment style, experiencing a partner might result in our displaying a secure attachment style, experiencing another partner may make us more anxious. (Campbell and Wilson 2003) 4) The theory is criticized for being deterministic as it suggests that the success of our current and future relationships is solely due to how our parents bring us up, with an attachment type we can't change. Although this does not falsify the theory, it is a clear weakness as research such as lewis et al has demonstrated that early experience does not 'doom' someone to a particular kind of relationship in later life. 5) - Bowlbys theory of the IWM can also be criticised for being simplistic as it fails to account for possible innate factors for example Kagans Temperament Hypothesis - this argues that some infants are born with an innate personality that makes them more friendly and therefore it is easier for the mother to be caring and nurturing. An infant will be born either easy, slow to warm-up, or difficult. Difficult infants will have tricky personalities that make it less likely that the mother will want to comfort and nuture them. Kagan therefore believes that a child with an easy temperament may form secure relationships both in childhood and adulthood because of their temperament. In this case early experience may only look like it has affected adult relationships - it may temperament which has brought about the association between the two.

Answer 13

SLT - Social Learning Theory can explain adult relationship style. In social learning theory Albert Bandura (1977) states behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning. Through OBSERVATION, Adolescents will observe levels of intimacy from their parents, siblings and role models by observing how they relate to one another. We then RETAIN a memory of this interaction e.g. we may retain a memory of our parents kissing and talking about their day at dinner. We then REPRODUCE the same behaviour when we feel confident that we are capable of imitating the observed action e.g. when we are in a relationship we do the same - kissing to great each other. It is more likely that this behaviour will be reproduced if we are MOTIVATED to. Two ways we are motivated is through 1) vicarious (observing the rewards your role model get from relationships ) reinforcement e.g. if the dad gives flowers to the mother and she is uplifted and happier for it, then the child will be motivated in their future relationships to do the same. 2) and positive reinforcement - Positive reinforcement is the addition of a reward following a desired behaviour so if our behaviour

Answer 14

Kristina Moeller and Hakan Stattin (2001), “report that adolescents with trustful parental relationships experienced greater satisfaction with their partner relationships in midlife.” Trust is rooted in the social interactions of infancy and may imply that trust is a learned personality characteristic that people develop and subsequently carry from relationship to relationshipd that boys who shared an affectionate and trustful relationship with their fathers in adolescence felt greater satisfaction with this romantic partners in adulthood but the same was not true however for girls. M and S suggest that fathers socialised their sons to think and behave in ways that may later influence their expectations about intimacy and marriage. They suggested the girls may have other sources for learning such as friends and role models. - Russel and Finnie - observed Australian pre-school children with their mothers in a situation where the child was introduced to unfamiliar peers, and found children classed as 'popular' had mothers who suggested strategies to help the child interact with other children and to ease them into the group. In contrast, children classified as neglected had mothers who tended to encourage their child to play with toys and materials but did not offer ways of helping them interact. This demonstrates how parental behaviour is repeated in the child and social skills from the parent are learnt and replicated by the child. 2) No evidence for observation - all these studies are parent-child, they are not observing, theres no evidence but instead they are learning them through interaction so research doesn't necessarily support SLT. IDA - 1) It is good because it can explain cultural differences - Family structures may vary and SLT can therefore explain why different relationships may form in different cultures where family structures are different. For example in more Asian cultures, extended families are more important and often live together in shared housing - this could be another source of interaction to learn from. 2) HOWEVER, in concern with the nature-nurture debate, its all concerned with nurture and does not consider our genetic make-up. Critics argue that SLT is environmentally deterministic which can be problematic as we may feel we are r

Answer 15

1) The set of shared attitudes, values, goals and practices that characterises an institution, organisation or group. A culture is shared by a group of people and is acquire or learnt by others. It teaches us th norms and values of behaviour including the development of relationships and love. 2) Individualist - emphasis on the individual, there rights goals and aspirations. It focuses on I rather than we and the goals of the individual rather than society most likely to be Western capitalist societies e.g UK USA - Collectivist - emphasis on collective responsibility, wider society and interdependence ties to others. It focuses on we rather than i and more likely to be Eastern non capitalist societies e.g Pakistan 3) In individualist cultures, there is a focus on love. Individuals choose their partner and their is less expectation of permanence. Romantic relationships sound be VOLUNTARY, TEMPORARY and based on LOVE - In collectivist cultures, there is a stress on responsibility to family, and arranged marriages usually take place with greater expectation on permanence. Romantic relationships should be PERMANENT, ARRANGED

Answer 16

1) The set of shared attitudes, values, goals and practices that characterises an institution, organisation or group. A culture is shared by a group of people and is acquire or learnt by others. It teaches us th norms and values of behaviour including the development of relationships and love. Romantic love is the feeling of warm attachment and deep affection for another individual, combined with sexual desire/ attraction; desire to be with that person. Hofstede claims that all cultures can be placed on a continuum between collectivist and individualist cultures. 2) Individualist - emphasis on the individual, there rights goals and aspirations. It focuses on I rather than we and the goals of the individual rather than society most likely to be Western capitalist societies e.g UK USA - Collectivist - emphasis on collective responsibility, wider society and interdependence ties to others. It focuses on we rather than i and more likely to be Eastern non capitalist societies e.g Pakistan 3) In individualist cultures, there is a focus on love. Individuals choose their partner and their is less expectation of permanence. Romantic relationships sound be VOLUNTARY, TEMPORARY and based on LOVE - In collectivist cultures, there is a stress on responsibility to family, and arranged marriages usually take place with greater expectation on permanence. Romantic relationships should be PERMANENT, ARRANGED Cultural transmission exposes us to cultural values e.g. fairy tales, films, storeys which gives us an idea or expectation for how our romantic relationships will evolve. There are 3 different ways cultural transmission can influence out romantic relationships... 1) Social learning - we observe what others do in our society and observe the positive and negative consequences of behaviour. Without having to experience the negative consequences of being different, we can learn behaviours from others. The media is a major source if social learning m, as are people we perceive to be similar to us, of high status in nurturing. 2) Socialisation: people are raised in different ways in different societies so that they have different norms values and expectations about life, including relationships. Cultures are physically isolated so we have little opportunity to see what behaviour is the norm in different societies. Even if we do, we tend to be so well sicislised that others behaviour looks odd to us 3) Conformity- people are generally conformist, in that they see what others in their society do as normal and want to fit in. Often there are negative consequences for not conforming to the norm. We use others as a source of info about what is beneficial to us

Answer 17

SLT - Social Learning Theory can explain adult relationship style. In social learning theory Albert Bandura (1977) states behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning. Through OBSERVATION, Adolescents will observe levels of intimacy from their parents, siblings and role models by observing how they relate to one another. We then RETAIN a memory of this interaction e.g. we may retain a memory of our parents kissing and talking about their day at dinner. We then REPRODUCE the same behaviour when we feel confident that they are capable of imitating the observed action e.g. when we are in a relationship we do the same - kissing to great each other. It is more likely that this behaviour will be reproduced if we are MOTIVATED to. Two ways we are motivated is through 1) vicarious (observing the rewards your role model get from relationships ) reinforcement e.g. if the dad gives flowers to the mother and she is uplifted and happier for it, then the child will be motivated in their future relationships to do the same. 2) and positive reinforcement - Positive reinforcement is the addition of a reward following a desired behaviour so if our behaviour

Answer 18

- Gray and Steinberg (1999) - Report how adolescents who are raised in an environment where there parents treat them with warmth and are emotionally available , may be better prepared for relationships and intimacy when they are adults. This demonstrate that the parents have transmitted ideas about opposite -sex relationships to their children through the process of modelling. They acquired a mental representation and copied this behaviour when they were older. Kristina Moeller and Hakan Stattin (2001), “report that adolescents with trustful parental relationships experienced greater satisfaction with their partner relationships in midlife.” Trust is rooted in the social interactions of infancy and may imply that trust is a learned personality characteristic that people develop and subsequently carry from relationship to relationshipd that boys who shared an affectionate and trustful relationship with their fathers in adolescence felt greater satisfaction with this romantic partners in adulthood but the same was not true however for girls. M and S suggest that fathers socialised their sons to think and behave in ways that may later influence their expectations about intimacy and marriage. They suggested the girls may have other sources for learning such as friends and role models. - Russel and Finnie - observed Australian pre-school children with their mothers in a situation where the child was introduced to unfamiliar peers, and found children classed as 'popular' had mothers who suggested strategies to help the child interact with other children and to ease them into the group. In contrast, children classified as neglected had mothers who tended to encourage their child to play with toys and materials but did not offer ways of helping them interact. This demonstrates how parental behaviour is repeated in the child and social skills from the parent are learnt and replicated by the child. 2) No evidence for observation - all these studies are parent-child, they are not observing, theres no evidence but instead they are learning them through interaction so research doesn't necessarily support SLT. IDA - 1) It is good because it can explain cultural differences - Family structures may vary and SLT can therefore explain why different relationships may form in different cultures where family structures are different. For example in more Asian cultures, extended families are more important and often live together in shared housing - this could be another source of interaction to learn from. 2) HOWEVER, in concern with the nature-nurture debate, its all concerned with nurture and does not consider our genetic make-up. Critics argue that SLT is environmentally deterministic which can be problematic as we may feel we are r

Answer 19

1) The set of shared attitudes, values, goals and practices that characterises an institution, organisation or group. A culture is shared by a group of people and is acquire or learnt by others. 2) Individualist - emphasis on the individual, there rights goals and aspirations. It focuses on I rather than we and the goals of the individual rather than society most likely to be Western capitalist societies e.g UK USA Collectivist - emphasis on collective responsibility, wider society and interdependence ties to others. It focuses on we rather than i and more likely to be Eastern non capitalist societies e.g Pakistan 3) In individualist cultures, there is a focus on love. Individuals choose their partner and their is less expectation of permanence. Romantic relationships sound be VOLUNTARY, TEMPORARY and based on LOVE In collectivist cultures, there is a stress on responsibility to family, and arranged marriages usually take place with greater expectation on permanence. Romantic relationships should be PERMANENT, ARRANGED

Answer 20

(Romantic love is the feeling of warm attachment and deep affection for another individual, combined with sexual desire/ attraction; desire to be with that person. We expect to fall in love, form relationships and if it lasts get married. We may fall out of love and the relationship will end and we are likely to fall in love with another.) 1) Social learning - we observe what others do in our society and observe the positive and negative consequences of behaviour. Without having to experience the negative consequences of being different, we can learn behaviours from others. The media is a major source if social learning m, as are people we perceive to be similar to us, of high status in nurturing. Socialisation: people are raised in different ways in different societies so that they have different norms values and expectations about life, including relationships. Cultures are physically isolated so we have little opportunity to see what behaviour is the norm in different societies. Even if we do, we tend to be so well sicislised that others behaviour looks odd to us Conformity- people are generally conformist, in that they see what others in their society do as normal and want to fit in. Often there are negative consequences for not conforming to the norm. We use others as a source of info about what is beneficial to us

Answer 21

Zaidi and Shuraydi Canada 2002- to investigate attitudes to voluntary versus involuntary marriages. Participants were 20 single women, second generation Pakistani Muslims born on Canada. Findings found that most favoured Westernised marriage practices involving greater amounts of partner choice. Most said their farthers were resistant to change and wanted their daughters to have an arranged marriage. This supports the distinction and shows that influence of cultural heritage and norms on beliefs about marriage; women were more exposed to Wesrerb norms whilst grown ups and conformed to the western goals for relationships whilst fathers are likely to have experienced fewer conformity pressures so possible to stick to their old values. le Vine et Al - aimed to investigate people's attitudes to marriage without love. Make and female participants in 11 countries were asked the following question: if someone has all the other qualities you desired in a marriage partner, would you marry this person if you were not in love? In collectivist cultures there was a higher percentage of yes answers (49% in India) compared to individualist cultures (3.5% in the U.S. and 7.3% In theUK). This supports distinction, shows again the influence of cultural norms and values about marriage - cultural norm in collectivist cultures is arranged marriage. The issue of temporal shift: Emphasis of geographical difference between collectivist and individualist cultures is misleading and can lead to ethnocentrism - it getting that Western cultures were also dominated by collectivist values in our recent history. - This links to economic development and media influences - capitalist values in Western societies - we can expect globalisation and urbanisation I have a similar effect in collectivist cultures (arranged marriage types are already becoming more flexible) Cross- cultural research has many methodological problems 1) sampling issues - ppts may not be representative of the culture studied - this could mean that there are actually greater individual differences within cultures rather than broad differences between cultures. 2) self report - often used to study marital satisfaction - by its nature biased leading to reduced validity of research - so research only had limited use in supporting an argument

Answer 22

1) Zaidi and Shuraydi - Small sample of 20 females and can be accused of Alpha bias only looking at Fathers not Mothers and havnt interviews their fathers. Therefore low population validity and we cannot generalise. They used interviews which is beneficial for establishing a rapport but could lead to the issue of social desirability. 2) 11 different countries therefore increased pop validity. However only asked under-grads therefore it's not a representative sample as there is a whole different culture among under grads. In addition there is a problem with open questions as interpretation means answers may depend on each ppts subjective interpretation. This makes it less valid. 3) ) self report questionnaire leads to the issue of social desirability however cross cultural.