Media Flashcards
MEDIA INFLUENCES ON ANTI-SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
(SLT) A01
Aggression is the clearest example of anti-social behaviour. Bandura claimed that aggression is learnt. Describe how SLT explains how media experience affects ASB
The key elements for social learning of aggression from the media are:
1) attention: the observer eg filmgoer pays attention to the model eg violent character. Films encourage this with exciting music and special effects
2) retention: observer retains memory of observed behaviour more likely with memorable characters played by well known actors.
Once learned, whether the behaviour is performed depends on…
3) motivation: the observer must want to copy the behaviour, more likely if…
-The role model is of high status eg James Bond who was educated at eton
-The observer can easily identify with the role model - a man is more likely than a women to behave violently if he sees two men fight.
-The observer sees the role model getting rewarded for his or her behaviour. (vicarious reinforcement) eg in taken the man retrieves his daughter after murdering and torturing men….
- Likewise seeing a role model receive punishment will put the observer off copying the behaviour. However, if a film does not show the negative consequences of violence, this absence of vicarious punishment will encourage imitation.
Evaluation of SLT explanation of media influences on ASB…
Bandura supports it; 5 minute film on their own - its involved the character rocky being abusive to a bobo doll however the ending of the film was different in each three conditions. 1) Model-reward condition - rocky was rewarded and praised 2) Model-punished condition - rocky was given a telling off and called a bully 3) Non-consequence condition.
After viewing the film each child spent 10 minutes in a room with the bobo doll. Two observers who did not know which condition each child had been assigned to, recorded behaviour. They also asked the children to show what rock did and said in the film.
Children in the no-consequence and model-rewards condition imitated significantly more aggressive behaviours that the model-punished group. When asked to perform the behaviour of Rocky, there was no difference between conditions and they could all repeat a significant number of aggressive action. They concluded that although the administration of punishment reduced whether or not children imitate aggressive behaviours, it does not influence the degree to which they learn it. This supports SLT’s idea that if there is no vicarious punishment of aggression, viewers will be more motivated to imitate the violence they have learned.
Comstock and palik - Meta analysis of more than 1000 findings on the effects of media violence, showed generally strong short term effects and rather weak long term effect. Support SLT by identifying factors which increased the effects of media violence on aggression such as id the person behaving violently is portrayed as similar to the viewer.
-They also found that if violence is presented as being efficient way of getting what you want it encourages the viewer (vicarious reinforcement)
Phillips found an increased rate of murder of young African-American males following highly publicised heavyweight boxing fights in which the black fighter was the loser. He also four increased murder rates of young white males following heavyweight title fights in which the white boxer was defeated.
Evaluation of technique - lab experiments supporting SLT often lack validity in how they operationalise aggression eg a bobo doll does not feel pain. If this were the only evidence it would undermine validity for SLT. However, findings into real world aggression also support it such as comstock… Therefore SLT is supported by a wealth of well triangulation evidence, suggesting that it is a valid way of explaining media effects on ASB
- A further criticism of the study is that the demonstrations are measured almost immediately. With such snap shot studies we cannot discover if such a single exposure can have long-term effects.
DESENSITISATION EXPLANATION OF MEDIA INFLUENCES ON ASB.
What is desensitisation?
Anderson et al… The reduction in distress-related physiological reactivity to observations or thoughts of violence. Empathy is the ability to pick up on and respond to the emotional states of others. This prevents us from hurting others: we experience an unpleasant emotional response to seeing people hurt. If we have seen enough people suffering from the consequences of violence,e.g. on films, our empathetic response is dulled so we are more likely to behave aggressively
DESENSITISATION - A02
A limitation to SLT is that it focus is exclusively psychological. It takes no account for the physiological effects of watching media violence on the brain. Therefore, completing SLT’s explanation with desensitisation gives a fuller picture than can SLT alone.
1) Evaluation of the desensitisation of explanation
2) A strength of both expanations is that they…
Grafman… Exposed to different clips with varying degrees of violence from low to medium to moderate.
Electrodes were also attached to their fingers to measure changes in sweat levels - known as skin conductance responses - another indicator of emotional state.
They found that as the boys were exposed to violence over time their activation in brain regions concerned with emotional reactivity decreased and that was reflected in the data both the MRI and skin conductance responses.
In particular thr lateral orbitofrontal cortex, involved in emotions, became increasingly desensitised over time.
Grafman believes that the findings can be extrapolated to the way people behave in real situations. Most people can distinguish between video game and real life but given the right circumstances where the rules are a bit more ambitious and provocative, would adolescent tend to be more aggressive and accept aggression as normal behaviour?
DETERMINSTIC: mark griffiths said this study cannot prove a causal link between violent images and real life violence and people are not simply salves to the biological process of their bodies and brains and it depends on social and psychological factors such as violence as a child.
PA: they suggest clear practical applications such as limiting the amount of exposure to violent models through tougher film censorship and a TV watershed. This should reduce violence in society.
Evaluation of research into the damaging effect on social relations….
- As this is only an association, the direction of effect is unclear. Playing video games might cause poorer relationships as young people remove themselves from social settings to play. Or they may already be struggling so its an alternative way to spend time.
- Although the study is recent, it may already be outdated given the huge growth of use in internet usage. As adolescents go online, the importance of using comutars to communicate with friends increases.
- Valkenburg and Peter propose the internet enhanced self disclosure hypothesis; shy and self-conscious adolescents will find it easier to disclose things about themselves online because they are less worried about appearance and social status.
Violent games cause aggressive behaviour….
In 1990s they saw the emergence of first person video shooter games such as ‘Doom’ in which the player, in a 3D interactive environment kills opponents with high levels of gore.
1) Anderson and Dill…
2) Weber et all….
3) Video games effect social relationships….
1) This was a lab experiment comparing effects of Wolfenstein (violent game) and Myst (non-violent) . 210 psychology undergraduates played a violent or non violent game twice then one week later had to play a game where they blasted their opponent with white noise. Those who played wolfenstein gave longer blasts of white noise than those who played Myst plus scored higher on and ‘aggression accessibility index, a measure of how quickly they responded to aggressive compared to control words. This suggest that playing violent video games increases aggressive behaviour in the short term by encouraging aggressive thoughts.
- Deterministic - lab experiment - the findings can not be extrapolated to how we would behave in real life - we have free will - suggests that we are slaves to out biological controls
Second study… 227 psychology undergraduates completed questionnaires completed questionnaires to measure trait aggression in the short term and delinquency- both general and aggressive. They also completed questionnaires about their 5 favourite video games assessing how often they played them and how violent and content and graphics of the game. Multiplying the two scores created an exposure to video violence scores. The scores correlated positively with those for trait aggression and for delinquency, both aggressive and non. They suggest that the longer lasting effects come about cause violent games content teaches aggressive attitudes and ways of behaving, leading to personality changes.
2) Weber - MRI scans male ppts who played violent video games. Part of the brain called the anterior cingulate cortex which is used to generate empathy was less active during playing violent games. This suggests desensitisation.
3) Padilla Walker et al found in a survey of 813 university students that as the amount of time playing video games went up, the quality of relationships with parents and peers went down.
What are the two positive effects of video games…
Relaxing and pro-social games may cause pro-social behaviour.
Active games like wii sport may encourage physical activity.
DESENSITISATION - A02
What is a limitation of SLT?
What is a strength of both explanations?
It focuses exclusively psychological. It takes no account of try physiological effects of brain. Therefore SLT explanation with desensitisation gives a fuller picture.
They suggest clear practical applications such as limiting the amount of exposure to violent models through tougher film censorship and watersheds.
Research into video games and pro social behaviour…
1)Whitaker and bushman
Evaluation…
Gentile…
Mellecker….
1) 116 students played either violent, neutral or relaxing video game for 20 minutes and then completed a mood questionnaire. The experimenter then announced then announced the study was over but could do with some help sharpening pencils. The number of pencils that ppts chose to sharpen was used to measure pro-social behaviour. Results showed that ppts who played the relaxing the relaxing video games chose to sharpen more pencils and rated themselves as feeling happier and more positive. Study suggests relaxing video games put people in better mood and consequently more inclined to help others.
The relaxing video games were rated, by a separate group of college students as just as entertaining as the neutral violent games plus the violent games were rated much more violent and the relaxing games much more relaxing.
Gentile- nearly 2000 Japanese children aged 10 to 17 completed 2 questionnaires; each done twice with a 3-4 month time span between the two assessments. They rated how often in the previous month they had played video games and two types of pro social behaviour scenes e.g. characters helping troubled person and showing affection between parents and kids. Using the same 5 point rating scale they also rated how often in the previous month they had done one of four helpful behaviours. The correlation between pro-social gaming and pro social behaviour at time 2 was higher than at time 1.
Evaluation: Self-report and Culturally biased.
Mellecker et al-compared heart rate and calorie expenditure in children while playing various types of games. 39% more calories were burned during the seated bowling game, 98% during an active bowling game and 451% more during the active running game.
Have practical implications in tackling obesity, However, it is difficult to come to a definite conclusion cause of individual differences eg for people keen on real sport this is a better option, playing tennis for real burns off four times as many calories as playing a virtual game. However one advantage of real games is it develops confidence in people to try for real sport by improving e.c.t…
Media and persuasion - A01
What is persuasion?
Psychologists see attitudes as having three components - What are they?
The ability for media to change peoples attitudes.
Affective: feelings/emotions about the attitude object
Behavioural: tendency to act in a certain way in relation to the attitude object.
Cognitive: beliefs and thoughts about the attitude object.
A01 - Describe the Hovland-Yale model
A02 - Research evidence
According to this cognitive model persuasion relies on a message being learned and remembered.
The model describes the factors which affect how persuasive a message is, the process by which persuasion occurs and the outcomes of persuasion.
- Factors - source (who is doing the persuading - people are more likely to be persuaded when a source presents itself as credible e.g an expert is seen to be more knowledgeable than someone who is not, so will be more persuasive)
- message (the content of what is being said such as how much fear a health advert arouses),
- audience (the nature of the audience is important such as levels of security/self esteem) - . Process - attitude change is sequential i.e. it takes place in stages…
- Attention -( pay attention to it - we are bombarded daily with adverts for example. We have to notice an advert to be persuaded)
- Comprehension ( understand it)-
- We then react to the advert, either with acceptance or rejection. - Outcome - If message is accepted attitude change in opinion, affect and behaviour.
If media communication is accepted by someone s/he has been persuaded. She has undergone what the model calls’attitude change’ i.e. a change in how s/he thinks about and behaves towards the attitude object
A02: Bochner and Insko asked students how much sleep they believed was required for good
health. They were then given an expert opinion and a non-expert opinion on the same topic,
and it was found that they were more likely to be persuaded by the expert source, even
when their own opinion was drastically different. This research suggests that the model is
correct and credible sources are effective in persuasion and attitude change.
Research inspired bu hY considers individual differences to some extent- McGuire found that more intelligent audiences are more likely to be persuaded by valid arguments because they have a longer attention span and can understand the arguments better. (HOWEVER Elm’s explanation of ID is more profound)
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How does Hovland-Yale model explain the effectiveness of TV advertising.
McGuire, based on the processes of the HY model, argued that a successful advert passes through several stages including exposure, attention, comprehension, yielding, retention and decision to buy. The advertisers job is to maxismise the chance of the advert getting to the next stage e.g. ensuring the consmer pays attention so s/he has a chance to understand it. The two stages influenced by the model are.,..
1) Attention: advertisers make their adverts as attractive as possible to keep people watching eg special effects, music, comedy and surprise
2) Comprehension: viewers need to clearly understand the message eg benefits of using the product in comparison to a competitors product.
Factors proposed by the HY model can also help to explain effectiveness. For example, a toothpaste advert might be presented by a dentist: their apparent expertise adds to the credibility of the message.
Elaboration Likelihood Model.
Need for cognition…
Vidrine et al (2007)
Describe the ELM
The ELM predicts that under some circumstances adverts are likely to be carfully scrutinised i.e via the central route or passively via the peripheral route. ELM explains that TV advertisements are effective cause. - Describe who would be more likely to use these routes and how advertisers respond to this?
The ELM is a dual processing theory which describes how attitudes and formed and how people are persuaded.
Elaboration likelihood refers to how probable it is that someone will give thoughtful consideration to the arguments put forward i.e. how likely it is that the person will use the central route.
There are two routes…
The central route - when this route is involved, the recipient takes an active role. This route is taken when the audience is more likely to focus on the content of the message, i.e. the strength of its arguments, than the context they are in. Because this route tends to be more measured and well-thought out than the peripheral route any attitude changes made in this way tend to be more lasting.
The peripheral route - less mental effort is required with this route and people are swayed by more superficial things such as attractiveness. This route focuses on things surrounding the message, i.e. the attractiveness or credibility of the source, rather than the message itself. This route will result in an attitude that is susceptible to change and more likely to be temporar
Need for cognition: One of the many differences in people is the extent to which they enjoy thinking and learning. ‘Need for cognition’ is a personality variable that represents the extent to which individuals enjoy and engage in effortful cognitive activities. Those in high need are likely to form attitudes by paying attention to the central arguments while those low are more likely to use peripheral cues to form opinions.
… ELM explains that TV advertisements are effective cause advertisers can a) fit advert type to processing type b) identify when each processing type is more likely and c) identify each processing type is more desirable for the advert to succeed.
Hard shell - presented factual information such as desirable product features or info about competitive pricing. A CR approach involves more effort so is more likely if the person is motivated to think carefully
Soft shell - peripheral cues include any features which put the product in a good light but which don’t require thought e.g. good music and catchy slogan.
Some people are better able to use the CR than others so if the product is directed mainly at a high need for cognition, the advert should emphasise factual information. However we all switch off at times so even these adverts are likely to contain some peripheral cures as well. This also means they have some appeal for lower NC people as well.
However, for some products there may be a few real differences between rival brands. In this case there is no point in trying to convince via the CR, the advert should focus on peripheral views instead.
Carries out a lab group difference study with 227 student smokers who were measured to assess their need for cognition. They were then exposed to
-fact based leaflet
-emotion based leaflet emphasising risks of smoking
They were tested immediately afterwards: those a high NC responded better to leaflet whilst those with Low NC to the emotion
When CR is more likely, adverts should be…
When PR is more likely, adverts should be..,
However…
Hard shell - presented factual information such as desirable product features or info about competitive pricing. A CR approach involves more effort so is more likely if the person is motivated to think carefully
Soft shell - peripheral cues include any features which put the product in a good light but which don’t require thought e.g. good music and catchy slogan.
for some products there may be a few real differences between rival brands. In this case there is no point in trying to convince via the CR, the advert should focus on peripheral views instead.
Description of one explanation for the effectiveness of TV advertising - A02
The ELM predicts that under some circumstances adverts are likely to be carefully scrutinized i.e via the central route or passively via the peripheral route. ELM explains that TV advertisements are effective cause…
… ELM explains that TV advertisements are effective cause advertisers can a) fit advert type to processing type b) identify when each processing type is more likely and c) identify each processing type is more desirable for the advert to succeed.
When CR processing is likely - Hard shell - presented factual information such as desirable product features or info about competitive pricing. A CR approach involves more effort so is more likely if the person is motivated to think carefully
When PR processing is likely - Soft shell - peripheral cues include any features which put the product in a good light but which don’t require thought e.g. good music and catchy slogan. The advert migh suggest an aspirational lifestyle associated with the product such as that buying a particular car will make you feel young and sexy.
Some people are better able to use the CR than others so if the product is directed mainly at a high need for cognition, the advert should emphasise factual information. However we all switch off at times so even these adverts are likely to contain some peripheral cures as well. This also means they have some appeal for lower NC people as well.
As CR processing involves more effort, it is more likely if the person is motivated to think carefully e.g. eople will more be motivated to think about choosing an expensive item like a computer than, say, which brand of breakfast cereal to buy
However, for some products there may be a few real differences between rival brands. In this case there is no point in trying to convince via the CR, the advert should focus on peripheral views instead.advertisers can fit advert type to processing type and identify when each processing type is more likely.
Evaluation of ELM…
- Haugtvedt et al found that attitudes of high NC people based more on product attributes; low NC on peripheral cues.
- ELM is more sophisticated then HY in distinguishing between permanent and temporary persuasion. Permanent is more likely with Central route whereas temporary is more likely with Peripheral route.
In addition HY model is two simplistic in saying that aspects of the message are important in persuading an individual. ELM explains the relevance of an ad to the individual and how they process this message.
Practical Applications: Agostinella and Grube found that most successful anti drinking campaigns in USA use celebs. Drinkers have a little interest in anti drinking message. ELM considers the relevance of the message to the audience so drinkers may be persuaded by superficial elements but the study shows not by the message.
ELM does not explain how peripheral cues work, a weakness in comparison to classical conditioning.
Conceptual distinction between Central and peripheral processing supported by distinction between high and low self monitoring. Snyder and de bono found people high in self monitoring to be more persuaded by soft shell and visa versa
Comparisons and similarities in elm and hy
Sim: both cognitive models, both have practical applications that can be used in ads, both discuss processes
Differences: ELM is holistic - links relevance of message with audience, Audience - elm high/low need for cognition whilst HY less or more intelligent, ( similar in that they both talk about the audience.
Explanations for attraction of celebs…
Explanation 1 - A01 - Parasocial relationships
1) What did Giles say?
2) What are para-social relationships?
3) Giles distinguishes three types of media figure with whom we can form para-social relationships with?
1) Giles distinguishes between the words celebrity and famous. Famous - deserving of recognition because of significant personal achievement. Celeb - a more modern phenomenon, comes from the French ‘celebre’ meaning ‘well-known.’ Although a lot of celebs are recognised because of their talent, many are known for nothing in particular other than being ‘known’
2) We encounter celebs through films, TV, youtube and we begin to learn a lot of information about them. These repeated encounters bring us a sense of familiarity. The media enable us to feel that we have relationships with them which are like real relationships. Whereas in a real relationship people are both emotionally invoved, a para-social relationship is one-sided; one person may feel a strong attraction towards the other and know a lot about them yet the recipient of this affection may be unaware of the other persons existence.
- Real people eg tv presenters
- Fictional characters
- Fictional non human characters such as cartoon characters.
His distinction is based on the idea that we could form a real relationship with the first type, with the actor for the second type and we can not go even that far with the third type. However you can form para-social relationships with all three.
One reason for para-social relationships is ‘transportation,’ which is getting immersed in a story, bringing about strong emotions.
Evaluation of parasocial relationships… A02
Meyrowitz - The ending of real realtionships has been found to lead to depression and is a common reason for seeking counselling. Meyrowitz described extreme reactions exhibited at the death of celebrities such as John Lennon and Elvis Presley. This similarity between real and para-social relationships therefore supports the explanation.
- Eyal and Cohen investigated whether this could be extended to ending parasocial relationships with fictional characters. Following ending of friends, 279 students completed surveys assessing the strength of their parasocial relationship with favourite friends characters, and their strength of their feeling about the parasocial break up. They found that the amount of break up distress was best predicted by intensity of para social relationship, supporting the parasocial explanation for celeb attraction - the more intense a real relationship is, the more distress the break up would cause, and the same was found here with a parasocial relationship.
- One contradictory finding is that parasocial explanation was that the duration of the para social did not predict the extent of break up distress (it has been found that the longer real relationships last, the more painful is their loss). In addition it doesn’t explain why some form parasocial relationships and others don’t.
Explanation of attraction to Celebs theory 2 - Attachment theory A01
Ainsworth, using the strange situation, identified three types of attachment styles
- insecure avoidant(withdrawing),
- secure(strong),
- insecure resistant(seeking and resisting contact). Attachments developed in infancy remain fairly stable over a lifetime because children develop an internal model of relationships i.e. a set of expectations about relationships which stays with them throughout life.
If parasocial relationships with celebs are similar to real relationships then just as childhood attachment style affects later adult relationships so it should affect adults parasocial relationships with celebs.
The theory suggest that:
- type C are often very emotionalbut have negative views about themselves. Intense attraction to a celeb allows them to express their emotions without fear of rejection. Type B have less fear of rejection so are less attracted to celebs.
Type A show the least celeb attraction, their unwillingness to form parasocial relationships reflects their hesitancy to make emotional commitments in real life.
Evaluation of attachment theory and celeb attraction…
A02
Compared with the parasocial explanation, attachment theory’s strength is that it can explain why having a parasocial relationship is more of an attraction to some than others.
Cole and leets supports the role of attachment in celeb attraction. 63 female and 52 male completed:
- A parasocial interaction Likert scale including 20 items such as “I miss seeing my favourite tv person.”
- A 15 item Likert scale to assess attachment style such as I find it relatively eady to get close to others (Type B) I am nervous when anyone gets too close (Type A) Sometimes people are scared away by my wanting to be too close to them (Type C).
Type C Type C participants were found to be most likely to form p relationships, type A lease likely and type B in the middle.
Evaluation: cole and leets ppts came from various ethnic backgrounds but were all students at an America university. Evidence that findings are not restricted to american culture provided by Cohen….
Israeli ppts completed questionnaire asking how they would feel if heir favourite TV star was taken off air. The most negative responses were from participants having resistant attachment, supporting the idea that such people invest more heavily than others in parasocial relationships
Evolutionary explanation to celeb attraction - A01
Evolutionary explanations of celeb attraction.. GOSSIP THEORY…
Dunbar..
Gossip refers to exchanging info about someone who is not present. Our ancestors in the EEA lived in much smaller and more isolated social groups than we do now. Knowing what was happenings in the social group gave both a reproductive and survival advantage e.g. Knowing about potential mates and threats, knowing who had high status and therefore power over others and knowing how prestigious individuals achieved their success. Those who were good at gossiping would therefore have been more likely to pass on their genes, giving rise to genetic hard-wire for gossip nowadays e.g. giving rise to a ‘genetic hard-wiring’ for gossip nowadays. However, evolution did not prepare us to distinguish between people who have genuine effects on our lives and images in the media. The familiarity with celebs provided by the media trips our gossip module.
Celebrities are wealthy and successful and ‘remind’ us of the high status individuals our ancestors would have gossiped about.
Dunbar suggest another function of celeb gossip is to act like grooming in primates. Not only does grooming have health benefits, it also helps to bond social groups together.
Evaluation of Gossip Theory… A02
De backer… supports the idea that celeb gossip bonds groups together. Survey of 800 ppts and in depth interviews with 103 found that older people were interested in celeb gossip because it helped them to form social networks with other people - i.e. to bond with real life acquaintances and friends Also found that younger ppts showed interest in celeb gossip even if it was about celebs who were a lot older or celebs that they didn’t know. They showed greatest interest in international celebs as they were seen as more prestigious. This supports the idea that our gossip module might be tripped as celebs remind young people of successful, high status individuals in the EEA who it would have paid more to know about.
Holt and Lewis - argue that gossip appears to be universal - everywhere people love talking about others, suggesting the tendency to gossip is ‘hardwired’ instead of dependent on culture.
Evolutionary explanation 2: Ornamental mind theory..
Humans posses a love for novelty. Before Tv and computers, our ancestors would of had to amuse each other and neophilia would have led to ever more creative displays from potential mates. Music, art and humour are high valued by humans partitculary during mate choice.
Fishers- ‘runaway’ sexual selection theory - females with choose males to mate with based on the characteristics they mind most attractive. Both the male trait and preference will be passed on to the next generation. Consequently they become fixed in the gene pool, the increasingly attractive male trait being selected by more females attracted to it. This male trait may have no survival value and be nothing more than an accessory desirable to females.
Miller argues that sexual selection might favour minds prone to inventing imaginative fantasies. Because musicians, artists and actors display these talents, we are drawn to them.
BUT DOESNT EXPLAIN MALE ATRRACTION TO FEMALE CELEBS
