Relationships Flashcards
Define natural selection
Human behaviour is driven by the need to survive and reproduce. Both males and females need to make sure that they have children and those children survive to adulthood. Genes that give a reproductive advantage will increase in the gene pool
Define inter sexual selection
Strategy of one sex often females due to high investment cost and parental certainty of children pick the highest quality mate from a wide selection of available mates according to attractive features indicating good genes
Define intra sexual selection
Strategy of one sex often males due to low investment costs and lack of parental certainty competing between each other for access to a large quantity of members of the other sex. Favours dominant large males
Define male-female dimorphism
Enchanted secondary sexual characteristics are selected for by both genders leading to these becoming more common in the population
What do females look like for in a man?
Qualities that will help raise a child to adult good sp money, tall, healthy
What do males look for in a relationship ?
Qualities of fertility that indicate production of healthy offspring large breast.young, small, good waist to hip ratio
What did buss investigate in his global survey 1989?
Across 33 countries buss surveyed 10000 adults on partner preferences when selecting a mate. Found males prioritised factors that indicate reproductive capacity such as younger age chasity and good looks while females prioritised factors that indicate resources such as money, ambition
What did Dunbar and waynforth study in lonely hearts 1995?
Used a content analysis method of 900 personal dating ads across 4 USA newspapers
Found 42% of males looking for youthful mates compared to 25% of females. Men were more likely to emphasise their economic status in their own adverts women were more likely to emphasise their looks
What did Clarke and heartfield 1989 investigate?
Male and female student researchers asked other students on campus one of three questions
Will u go out with me will you go back to my house will you have sex with me
Found that 50% of both genders agreed end to a date and 0% of females and 75% of men said yes to sex
Why is it a criticism that there’s conflict between natural selection and sexual selection ?
Some adaptions that are sexually selected for such as peacock feathers maybe selected for due to sexual selection but a disadvantage in survival such as escaping from predators
What did Cunningham 1986 find out?
Found men were most attracted to images of youthful faces, small nose, chins
Why can the evolutionary approach be criticised ?
Can be criticised as legitimatising a gender double standard between men and women. Sexual differences may have been exaggerated suggesting alpha bias
Why can the sexual and natural selection be socially sensitive?
Findings could be used as a justification for shaming women for their sexual behaviour
Why don’t all evolutionary theories explain all relationships?
Doesn’t explain gay relationships
Define attraction
The action or power of evoking interest in or liking in someone or something
Define self disclosure
We tend to disclose more info to those we like and like people who reveal info about themselves to us more this is thought to be an indication of trust that info will stay between the individuals
What do Altman and Taylor suggest about self disclosure? And what is social penetrations theory
Suggest that as the relationship between indivials develops as the breadth and depth of interpersonal communication increases from shallow levels to become more intimate. They call this social penetrations theory
Breadth: certain topics may not be appropriate until a certain level of friendship
Depth: level of info about a topic is revealed such as info that is emotionally painful
Define reciprocity
Relationships will only develop if both individuals are active in both disclosing info and responding in an appropriate way
Define attribution
Individuals consider the motivations behind self disclosure someone who is seen to disclose to anyone is seen as less attractive than someone who discloses to us because they see us as special
Define appropriateness in self disclosure
While revealing info is generally seen as improving relationships breaking social norms or revealing info too early can have the opposite reaction, lower attraction
What did sprecher an handrick 2004 student dating find out?
Used a longitudinal observational study watching couples self disclosure on dates. Men and women were found to have similar levels of self disclosure and a positive correlation was found between the amount of self disclosure and measure of the quality of the relationship
How can Spencer and Hendricks study be criticised?
The research on self disclosure is correlational. So there may not be a casual link rather than self disclosure causing attraction we may self disclose more to people we are attracted to or perhaps there is a third factor if we share interests with people this may lead to both increased disclosure and increased attraction
Why is self disclosure seen as culturally biased?
Tang 2013 Suggests that people in the collectivists society of china have higher relationship satisfaction with lower levels of disclosure
What is sexual selection?
Sexual selection explains why certain seemingly disadvantageous characteristics are still passed on. This is because these characteristics may be advantageous for sexual selection
E.g males who behave aggressively and females with characterstics traits of fertility (narrow waist and large hips)
This process determines which genes are passed onto offspring through the process of heredity
What is anisogamy?
Differences between male and female gametes
What does inter sexual selection mean?
The strategies that each sex uses to attract the other this is the quality over quantity approach and is favoured by females because they invest more energy into a relationship
Because they can only produce 1 egg for 9 months therefore a female will be more choosy as to who she mates with
What is the sexy son’s hypothesis and who invented it?
Fisher sexy sons hypothesis is that through a female choosing to mate with an attractive male her offspring will also grow up to be attractive or sexy and so are themselves likely to attract females to mate with this ensures that the females genes are passed onto on through several gens
What is intra sexual selection ?
The strategies used within sexes to attract males. This is the quantity over quality approach is favoured by males because they produce sperm continuously throughout their lifetime with little energy investment therefore from an evolutionary perspective it is most effective to impregnate as many women as possible to ensure the survival of their genes
What are examples of intra sexual selection ?
Males behaving aggressively and being protective of their females, being larger and having strong jawline and broad shoulder
What is dimorphism?
The differences in mating strategies and anisogamy results in dimorphism i.e the physical differences between the male and female sexes
What evidence suggest that it’s incorrect to assume that current reproductive patterns still have a strong evolutionary basis?
An interactionist approach would be more accurate where the influences of both culture and evolution are combined together
Chang et al 2011 changin social and cultural norms means that women no longer place a large emphasis on resource availability when looking for a new partner as suggested by bereczkei et al 1997 because women are now more financially independent with the average age of marriage currently exceeding 30. Suggesting inter sexual selection lacks temporal validity
What research has suggested that there are some sexual selection pressures which have been constant in terms of evolution and in terms of modern times?
Singh 1993 says that if this ratio is around 0.7 then this demonstrate to potetial mates that the female is fertile and able to carry children over a long period of time with birth being easier when the females has large hips and a narrower waist therefore this suggests that some evolutionary pressures are still relevant in the modern world
What research supports the idea that females are more selective when it comes to potential mates?
Clark and Hatfield 1989 found that 75% of college males compared to 0% of females would be willing to sleep with a stranger if this stranger had approached them and complimented them this suppers the idea that men have an evolutionary predisposition to want to impregnate as many women as possible. And supports intra and inter selection
What is self disclosure?
The info we choose to reveal about ourselves within a romantic relationship the aim of self disclosure is to increase the intimacy understanding and empathy between two individuals
It should be reciprocal
Who proposed the social penetration theory and what is it?
Altman and Taylor suggest that the process of self disclosure allows one person to penetrate deeper into the life of their partner thus increasing intimacy and trust however its importnat to be selective with what one chooses to disclose
What is the onion analogy in the social penetration theory ?
As a relationship progresses more layers of the onion are removed representing deeper and more meaningful info being disclosed this is only likely to occur if the exchange of such info is reciprocal e.g a person showing empathy
Revealing intimate details about oneself at the beginning of a relationship may be detrimental effects
What are the two elements of the social penetration theory according to Reis and shaver?
Depth and breadth there is a positive correlation between the increasing quality and trust within a relationship coinciding with increasing depth and breadth of revealed info
E.g. high levels of breadth result in low levels of depth due to many topics being off limits thus reducing the emotional impact and empathy shown by the other person
What research support is there for the predictions made by social penetration theory ?
Laurenceau et al 2005 found that on the basis of daily diary entires high levels of intimacy and trust were strongly associated or correlated with high levels of self disclosure in married couples this suggests that the depth and breadth of self disclosure is strongly predictive of the intimacy and quality of romantic relationships which again supports the validity of the social penetration theory as an indicator of relationship quality
What research evidence is there for an increased understanding of the importance of self disclosure in building and maintaining intimacy within ?relationships can have a real life practical advantage ?
Hass and Stafford 1998 found that for couples with high levels of intimacy and commitment within their relationships 57% reported the use of self disclosure as a way to maintain it therefore this supports the use fo therapies which focus on increasing the depth and breadth of self disclosure for couples who struggle with intimacy as well as increasing trust within their relationship there are the predictions made by social penetration theory thus further increasing the validity of this theory
What is a methodological issue with the use of correlational studies such as sprecher and Hendricks is that casual conclusions can’t be made?
E.g. simply because there is a correlation between satisfaction and self disclosure doesnt necessarily mean that the former causes the latter correlational studied can never establish cause and effect relationships between two variables because they may also be affected ny the thrid variable problem this occurs when a thrid unstudied variable can affect both the outcomes e.g the age difference between each couple
What are factors affecting attraction according to shackleford and Larsen 1997?
Females with neotenous child like faces are more likely to be viewed as attractive by males because their facial features soft chin and large eyes trigger an aggressive and protective trait in men which gives the female an evolutionary advantage thisi alongside facial symmetry
What is the halo effect?
The halo effect suggest that we have a tendency to associate highly attractive people with preconceived disproportionately positive characteristics including personality and wealth even though these factors may not be linked therefore we are more likely to view attractive poeple develop these traits and do displays the process of self fulfilling prophecy
What is the key to a successful relationship according to the matching hypothesis ?
Striking a balance between the attractiveness of a mate and the realistic chances of attaining such a mate this relies on an accurate assessment of ones own attractiveness and value meaning that we are more likely to have a mate who is of similar attractiveness level to us. Such a method reduces the likelihood of rejection by a seemingly unattainable individual and the potential disappointment
What research supports that physical attractiveness matters?
Mcnully et al 2008 found that physical attractiveness was still an important determinant of a successful relationship even after marriage
What research evidence is there that the halo effect and physical attractiveness may vary in its importance as a predictor of the quality of early relationships depending on the individual ?
Towhey 1979 found that ppts with low scores on the MAHCO scale (measures underlying sexiest veliefs about others) were less likely to be attracted to an individual as a potential partner based purely on their physical attractiveness this suggests that physical attractiveness from an evolutionary perspective doesnt provide the same selection pressure for all individuals and so may explain the cases of couples were one is significantly more attractive than the other therefore the halo effect has a good theoretical value
What research supports that physical attractiveness isn’t affected extensively by cultural relativism ?
Cunningham et al 1995 features including large eyes,high eyebrows and sharp cheekbones and this is applicable across both Asian and western male respondents as demonstrated by wheeler and Kim 1997 therefore this means that although the influence of physical attractiveness varies between individuals what is considered attractive is relatively consistent
What are the practical applications of the halo effect?
Palmer and Peterson 2012 found that even when ppts were informed that the images of physically attractive people represented those of popele with little knowledge of political matters, respondents still judged these images as representative of poeple who were highly politically skilled,mature and trustworthy this has important implications on the state of politics where the success of some politicians or political parties may be more easily or accurately explained as a result of the halo effect rather than actual political expertise therefore this knowledge could be used to be advantage of some parties when selecting candidates
What is the filer theory and who proposed it ?
Kerchoff and Davi’s 1962 proposed the filter theory of attraction we are initially exposed to a field of availables but in order to form relationships we must narrow down this field into a field of desirables using the 3 filters of social demography,similarity in attitudes and complementarity the importance of each filter depends on whether the relationship is short term or long term
How is social demography an important filter?
Two people sharing similar social demographic features are more likely to find each other attractive nevertheless proximity is key because it provides accessibility which makes communication and relationship formation between both parties easier as the two individuals have regular access to each other therefore close proximity between two individuals may trump dissimilarities in other social demographic features
How is similarity in attitude importnat as a factor?
Important in short term relationships i.e. less than 18 m this describes basic similarities in terms of core beliefs about significant topic such as love sex and religion. Large dissimilarities in the attitudes expressed between two partners may cause the relationship to end because of the incompatibility that would result in the long term
How is complemetarity important as a factor?
A relationship is more likely to be successful if two poeple feel that they complete each other to form a whole therefore supporting the common belief that opposites attracted e.g. a sociable individual will enjoy encouraging their partner to partake in more activism which in turn means that the partner will enjoy the benefit themselves from improved social skills
Why is filter theory not applicable now that we have the internet?
Such technological advances mean that our field of desirables is further increased because we aren’t restricted by certain social demographic such as proximity and social class or culture because we have the ability to communicate with potential partners before meeting them and potentially starting a relationship this means that filter theory may lack temporal validity because it can only explain dating phenomena which have been restricted to the era before the internet nonetheless the majority of individuals can still use the 3 filters outlines in the theory so it’s not completely invalid as an explanation for relationship formation
What research evidence is there to support the filter theory is important?
Winch 1958 found that initial similarities in beleifs and attitudes were cited as one of the main attractive features in the partners of respondents which is in line with the predictions made by the matching hypothesis as well as increasing the validity of filter theory as a way of narrowing the field of availables down to a field of desirables therefore this suggests that even in the modern age filter theory and the matching hypothesis are still valid explanations of relationship formation
What evidence is there there to refute the idea that initial similarities are important in the early stages of relationship formation ?
Anderson et al 2003 demonstrated the idea of emotional convergence whilst the attitude alignment effect where over time a couples attitudes will become more similar was demonstrated by David and rusbult 2001 this means there exists individual differences in the ways in which filter theory affects different individuals and that the importance of initial similarities between romantic partners isn’t always concrete
What is the social exchange theory and who created it?
Thibault and Kelley 1959
The social exchange theory for relationship formation takes an economical approach viewing viewing relationships as worthwhile based on their relative costs and benefits with the minimax principles suggesting that we all aim to increase our rewards and decrease our benefits we invest time energy and Monet into each relationship and so we want to get out worth this relates to the opportunity cost which suggests that we must choose whether to invest these resources into our current relationship or in other opportunities
What do comparison levels refer to?
Assesses the potential profits we gain from a relationship i.e rewards costs we can use comparison levels which refers to our perception of what we are worth and so what we can get out of a relationship this perception becomes more sophisticated, and potentially more accurate with experience because we can base our comparison levels off of a large number of relationships and experiences
Our cl are influenced by social and cultural factors such as what novels and tv programs depict as a good or bad relationship
What is the second method of assessing profit ?
Comparison of alternatives individuals may consider ending a relationship if they can see that there are other alternatives which would give them a larger return on the investment they are making towards their current relationship
What are the 4 stages of assessing the quality and profit of a relationship ?
Sampling- rewards and costs are determined through trial and error
Bargaining-as a couple become more committed,compromises are made in terms of costs and rewards
Commitment-such standards of cost and rewards are known to both parties
Institutionalisation-these standards and expectations are well established
What is SET less useful as an explanation as to why relationships breakdown?
Because many of the concepts in SET can’t be objectively and quantitatively measured such as comparison levels and the comparison level of alternatives it is for this reason that its difficult to establish thresholds for each of these concepts
This means set is a subjective theory and reflects each individuals perception of what is worthy in a relation in terms of compassion levels
How does set make incorrect assumptions that considerations of alternatives triggers dissatisfaction and what research supports this?
This makes sense because poeple in committed loving relationships are unlikely to look towards other attractive people as alternatives because theya re stafdied in their own relationship and have their own perception of suitable comparison levels as suggested by argyle 1987 it therefore should flow that satisfied individuals in long term relationship will spend less time looking at other highly attractive people because the benefits of their current relationship exceeds the associated costs as demonstrated by miller 1997 therefore this suggests that set is likely to be an accurate explanation for comparison levels as a mechanism for relationship breakdown after dissatisfaction appears as opposed to the opposite
How does the overemphasis of set on the role of compassion levels ignores the importance of equity and what research supports this?
Even if the benefits of a relationship exceeds the costs for an individual if this excess is not equal to that of their partners then this inequity is likely to be a major cause of dissatisfaction in the relationship even if the two partners have similar perceptions of their comparison levels this idea has been supported by equity research conducted by utne et al 1984
What is the equity theory?
Suggests a striking a balance between the ratio of cost and reward that each individual has is the key to a successful relationship. Therefore couples aren’t always looking to maximise their gains but simply to have a fair relationship this is not the same as equity where this ratio alongside levels of cost and rewards would be the same for both partners
What are rewards and costs in a relationship?
Feeling of intimacy,love,sex,support and encouragement whereas costs may include infidelity and even abuse
How can equity theory lead to people overbeniffitng and underbeniffitng?
Equality is largely a subjective perception however differences in these perceptions can lead to one person being overbenifitted whilst the second is underbenifitted this disparity causes the overbenifitted individual to feel quilts and not worthy of the other whereas the underbenifitted individuals feel envious and disappointed that their input into the relationship isn’t reciprocal
What evidence is there contradicting the idea that the idea of equity is universal across all relationships and crucial to upholding the quality of all relationships ?
Huseman et al 1987 this influence varies depending on the individual and whether they are happy to disproportionatelt give to the relationship (benevolent) or disproportionately thrive off of the relationship (entitleds) in both cases individuals do so without worry and are aware of their actions as well as their partners attitudes this means that equity is essentially a perception and isn’t universal across all people
What evidence is there supporting the link between equity theory and the satisfaction or commitment in a relationship ?
Utne et al satisfied couples (out of a sample of 118) and who’d been dating for 2 or more years before marriage valued equity as a key component of the success of their relationship and preferred this balance compared to one or both members being benevolent or entitleds therefore this suggest that equity has greater ecological validity than SET as it can explain the quality and satisfaction associated with real life couples as opposed to simply being theoretical
What research suggests that the equity theory may be a better or more valid explanation for friendship and business/non personal relationships?
Researchers Clark and mills 2011 emphasised that its importnat to draw distinctions between different types of relationship and the different expectations that go with each which may impact on the percieved equity levels hence thsi suggests that SET is a limited explanation for only some types of relationships
What is the rusbult investment model?
An extension of social exchange theory suggested that commitment and investment are both more important than satisfaction in determining the likelihood of a successful relationship. The three factors which determines the level of commitment shown within a relationship are satisfaction levels,comparison with alternatives and investment size.
What does rusbult argue satisfaction occurs?
Occurs when each partner sees large profits and that there are fewer plausible or profitable alternatives in which they can invest their resources
When does comparison play an important factor in the investment model?
If one partner feels that their profits are decreasing such as through costs increasing throughout the course of the relationship then they shall start looking for alternative relationships or even consider having no relationship at all
What are the two types of investment?
-intrinsic
-extrinsic
What is an intrinsic investment ?
Resources which were we have added to the relationship both at the beginning and throughout e.g Monet, time ,energy
What is an extrinsic relationship?
Resources which have come about as a result of the relationship e.g. a shared mortgage, children, strong expectations from others of staying together
What does the size of the investment determine?
Dictates how hard each parter will work to salvage their relationship and thus demonstrate commitment form an economic viewpoint this commitment is almost selfish in that it is carried out purely not to lose the investment rusbult suggested that there are mechanisms which facilitate commitment: ridiculing alternatives, positive illusions,forgiveness, willingness to sacrifice and accommodation
What research support that the investment model features high ecological validity?
It can easily explain abusive relationships by shifting the focus from relationship satisfaction to that of investment and viable alternates as demonstrated by rusbult and Martz 1995 these researchers found that the predictions based off of rusbults model can explain why battered women often return to their abusive partners and explained thsi in terms of making significant investments and having few alternative partners rather than satisfaction therefore this shift of focus may be considered refreshing and a more valid explanation of abusive relationship compared to SET or equity theory
Although self report measures are usually criticised as lacking objectively and creating qualitative data however rusbults model doesnt how?
The key elements of his model focus on an individuals perception of their investments resources and energy, as opposed to a quantitative value this makes sense and has high ecological validity when considering that an individuals perception of their investments is often different to their partners perception in the instance of relationships breakdown therefore rusbults investment model has used the correct methodology to accurately reflect the subjective nature of the model features
Why is it a problem that rusbults investment model sees the motivation to continue with a relationship according to the investments,time and energy which an individuals has contributed ?
The motivation to see a couples future plans come to fruition may be a bigger predictor of relationship success as opposed to initial investments which are often very low in the early stages of romantic relationships this was suggested bu goodfriend and agnew 2008 therefore rusbults model may have oversimplified the concept of investment and its future implications on the plans that couples make together
What is ducks phase model?
Duck 2007 suggested that there is a process of relationship breakdown which occurs in 4 distinct stages each marked by a threshold or a change in each partners perception of the relationship, which leads them to enter the next stage
What are the 4 stages of the phase model?
-intra psychic stage
-dyadic phase
-social phase
-grave dressing stage
What is the intra psychic stage ?
Focuses upon cognitive elements. One or both partners have reached the point/thereshold that they are evaluation the costs and rewards of their relationship and reconsidering the profitability as compared to the investments however most of these processes are private, and are unlikely to be shared unless potentially with a trusted friend
What is the a dyadic phase?
The previously private thoughts about the future of the relationship are now openly discussed between the partners who may voice concerns over inequity,jealousy,increasing costs of the relationship etc. this may either provoke the partners to work to salvage the relationship or may trigger the beginning of a public breakdown
What is the social phase?
Where the breakup has been ,made public. This triggers friends of the couple to evaluate the relationship to either give reassurance/support or place blame on one of the partners,which inevitably results in the majority of the mutual friends having to take sides a final attempt to salvaging the relationship may be made by these friends perhaps by offering their advice or helping resolve equity issues
What is the grave dressing stage?
Confirms the end of the relationship and signifies both members to move on key to this face is keeping good face and maintaining a positive social image this may involve fabricating false stores about the cause of the end of the relationship to make it more socially acceptable both partners make new plans to carry on with their lives taking with them valuable lessons learnt from the previous relationship
Why is it bad that there might be a fifth stage of the model as suggested by rollie and duck 2006 called the resurrection phase?
Where individuals learn from the experiences of their previous relationships however these researchers also suggest that a relationship breakdown model should be a dynamic progression as opposed to a set sequence of stages through which all people pass through the social dynamics within each stage can also affect the chances of ex partners reunintng such as the spreading of rumours during the dyadic or social phase this means that ducks model may be oversimplified and has little ecological validity because it can’t represent the progression of real life relationships
Why is flemlees fatal attraction hypothesis 1995 may be a better and more valid explanation of relationship breakdown compared to the phase model?
This is because the fatal attraction hypothesis which suggest that the initially desirable characteristics become less so as the relationship progresses actually explains the cause of relationship breakdown as opposed to simply the progression of the breakdown as the phase model does. This means that ducks model may lack ecological validity because it is a general description of a universal sequence of stages involved in relationships breakdown as opposed to a concrete explanation
What are the methodological issues associated with the research upon which ducks phase model was based upon?
For example much of the research features self report measures which are completed retrospectively after the end of the relationship. This means that the data may rely too much on the respondents accuracy of memory and a realistic perception of the relationship. In addition since researchers are unwilling to intervene at the early stages of relationship breakdown this means that these early stages are mostly speculative and their workings inferred from the later phase model as an explanation for relationship breakdown
What are the methodological issues associated with the research upon which ducks phase model was based upon?
For example much of the research features self report measures which are completed retrospectively after the end of the relationship. This means that the data may rely too much on the respondents accuracy of memory and a realistic perception of the relationship. In addition since researchers are unwilling to intervene at the early stages of relationship breakdown this means that these early stages are mostly speculative and their workings inferred from the later phase model as an explanation for relationship breakdown
What is keisler and sproull 1986 reduced cues theory ?
Suggests that CDC relationships may have poorer levels of intimacy and delayed self disclosure because some of the vital cues present in face to face relationships such as facial expressions and voice intonation are not present in CDC relationships leading to the de individuation of each partner. Therefore to act as a compromise for the lack of cues one or both individuals are likely to be excessively blunt or impersonal which also reduces the likelihood of future self disclosure and early intimacy within the relationship
What does the hyper personal model suggest? And what do cooper and sportolari say about the boom and bust phenomenon
Online relationships develop and end at a much higher rate than face to face relationships
Cooper and sportolari 1997 through their idea of a boom and bust phenomenon initial self disclosure is high because partners can be selective about what information they choose to display or disclose i.e. selective self penetration. However a lack of personal cues means that trust and intimacy is not built at the same rate as self disclosure so these exchanges aren’t reciprocal.
What. Do bargh et al 2002 say about responsibility of online relationships?
The anonymity associated with online dating means that each individual takes less responsibility for their behaviour and so the break up and build up of the relationship is less personal
What are the reasons why we choose one person over another according to McKenna and bargh 1999?
Gating refers to the reasons as to why we may choose one person over another. An absence of gating may explain why the rate of progression of online relationships is greater than relationships in real life if each individual is selective about how they present themselves online then there are fewer gates and so effectively fewer reasons not to choose a particular individual to start a relationship with
What evidence is there supporting some of the core principles/assumptions of the hyper personal model ?
Whitty and Johnson 2009 online communications due to the apparent lack of nonverbal cues often feature direct questions as opposed to the small talk which features in face to face relationships therefore thsi suggests that we are actually more likely to self disclose in virtual relationships because we can be selective as to what info we reveal about ourselves and so use self disclosure to further improve the way that a potential partner views us hence the central principle of selective self presentation and the importance of anonymity are demonstrated in such studies
What research suggests that the theories of self disclosure and absence of gating in virtual relationships may lack ecological validity because they may not be able to explain all the course of modern age relationships?
Walther 2011 individuals often feel the pressure to portray themselves in the same way as they have online as in real life and so this interaction may offset the effects of fewer gates and self disclosure in virtual relationships
What research suggests that although virtual relationships are instrinscially different to face to face relationships they may still share the similarity of featuring nonverbal signals?
Walther and Tidwell 1995 this includes the use of emojis,acronyms and nonverbal cues which are specific to online communications such as the length,timing and tone of the messsage sent this refutes the central assumption of the reduces cues theory that online communication relationships may suffer due to being impersonal and featuring few cues, especially considering that an increasing number of successful modern relationships being online
What is the celebrity attitude scale and who invented it?
Maltby et al 2006 used the celebrity attitude scale to establish three different stages of parasocial relationships each increasing with emotional intensity and commitment towards the celebrity.
What are the three stages of parasocial relationships?
Entertainment-social
Intense-personal
Borderline pathological
What does the first . stage suggest of para social relationships?
The first stage suggests that celebrity news is used as a source of gossip (Giles 2002) and so can strengthen real life relationships with friends due to having more common interests
What is the second stage?
It’s characterised by obsessive thoughts about the celebrity and an advanced emotional connection with them
What is the thrid stage of the parasocial relationships?
It’s associated with more pathological behaviours such as stalking and/ or resentment against anyone who may prevent the individual from carrying out these behaviours
What makes someone more likely to be in a parasocial relationship ?
Someone is more likely to develop abnormal,pathological parasocial relationships if they are unfulfilled in their current relationship,have low self esteem or have experienced traumatic life changing events e.g a mid life crisis
What is the absorption addiction model ?
Where absorption indicates the individuals initial interest and developing obsession with the celebrity whilst the addication model indicates the individuals needs to increase the intensity and commitment of their parasocial relationships through increasingly pathological behaviours
How do bowlbys theories link to parasocial relationships ?
An individual with an insecure resistant attachment type is more likely to be involved in a parasocial relationship due to lowering the risk of rejection and pain allongside unfulfillment associated with real life relationships as well as those with an insecure avoidant attachment type but with an emphasis on avoiding the feelings above rather than being exposed to them in the driest instance
Why is bowlbys attachment theory maybe a better explanation for the development of pathological traits in parasocial relationships compares to the absorption- addiction model?
This is because the latter model accurately describes the acquirement and maintence of parasocial relationships whereas bowlbys attachment theory can explain why some people are more likely to begin parasocial relationships than others therefore bowlbys attachment theory has a greater practical explanatory value
What evidence is there to support the idea that different psychological states are associated with each of the three stages of parasocial relationships formation?
Maltby et al 2003 for example the final borderline psychotic stage is associated with psychotic traits whilst the second stage is associated with neuroticism. This alongside previous evidence form Maltby et al 2005 which found a positive correlation between increasing body dissatisfaction and an increasing likelihood of developing a parasocial relationship supports the idea that abnormal psychological functioning is heavily implicated in the formation of parasocial relationship this is in line with mccutcheons original theory and predictions increasing the validity of such ideas
Why might the methodology of research studies which have formed the basis and theories of parasocial relationships may be flawed?
The first problem is that of correlational research which can only demonstrate a link between two variables and so can’t establish a cause and effect relationship between for example personality type and the likelihood of forming a parasocial relationship. Such correlational studies also don’t take into the account the thrid variable problem where a thrid unstudied variable may be affecting both outcomes
The second problem is the reliance on self report measures which depends on the accuracy of the respondents memory and their honesty such data is particularly susceptible to acquisience bias and social desirability bias this therefore reduces the reliability of the celebrity attitude scale and mccutcheons stages as explanations of parasocial relationships
