Relationships Flashcards
What is self disclosure?
Revealing personal information about yourself.
What is social penetration theory?
The gradual process of revealing your inner self to someone, involving reciprocity and a display of trust when revealing information.
What is matching hypothesis?
- What are the 2 hypothesis which make up the theory?
The belief that we are most attracted to a person who approximately matches us in physical attractiveness.
H1: Attractive people expect an attractive partner
H2: Couples who are equally matched are happier.
What is the difference between inter-sexual selection and intra-sexual selection?
Inter-sexual = between the sexes, that strategies that males/females use to select females/males.
Intra-sexual = within the sexes, the strategies between males to be the one that is selected.
Define anisogamy:
The differences between male and female sex cells (gametes)
What is one biological consequence of anisogamy?
There are no shortage of fertile males but a fertile female is much rarer.
- Female gametes require a significant investment of energy.
What is the preferred method of selection for females?
Inter-sexual selection
(quality over quantity - ova are rarer than sperm)
What is the preferred method of selection for males?
Intra-sexual selection
(quantity over quality - plentiful supply of sperm)
What strategy of selection has resulted in sexual dimorphism?
Intra-sexual selection
What is sexual dimorphism?
‘Two Forms’ (males and females look very different)
Evaluation of sexual selection:
- Research support: Hatfield (1989) - Men have evolved psychological mechanisms to ensure success in short term mating
- Gender bias: Men couldn’t have evolved a desire for short term mating without willing females, meaning there must be benefits of short term mating for women: mate switching to leave a poor relationship, or producing more genetically diverse offspring.
- Universality is high: Buss (1989): 10000 people across 37 cultures
What is the main evolutionary explanation for partner preferences?
Sexual selection
What research study acts as evidence for sex differences in short term mating preferences?
Hatfield (1989)
What were the results of Hatfield’s study?
Of the females approached:
- 50% agreed to a date
- 0% agreed to have sex
Of the males approached:
- 50% agreed to a date
- 75% agreed to have sex
What study acts as evidence for universal sex differences in long term mating preferences?
Buss (1989)
Findings of Buss (1989)
- Women desired good financial prospects; ambition, resources.
- Men places more importance on physical attractiveness; fertility, reproductive value. Males also want younger females
- Both sexes wanted mates who were intelligent, kind, and dependable.
Procedure of Buss (1989)
Meta analysis of 10000 people from 37 cultures
Buss explored what males and females look for in a marriage partner.
What study opposes Buss (1989)’s theory that males want younger females?
Kenrick (1996)
Findings of Kenrick (1989)
- Found that teenage males are most attracted to women who are 5 years older than them, despite the fact that they usually show no interest and are not easily controlled.
What do both sexes look for in long term mates?
Males: signs of fertility
Females:
1. Resources
2. Physical protection
3. Good parent
4. Sufficiently compatible to minimise costs
What does more disclosure result in?
Greater feelings of intimacy
What theory does self disclosure fall under?
Social Penetration Theory
What 2 factors are important in self disclosure and how do they play into each other?
Breadth and depth:
Breadth is restricted at first as some topics are ‘off limits’. As depth increases so can breadth.
Evaluation of self disclosure:
- Real world applications: Can increase intimacy and strengthen bonds
- Cultural differences: Tang (2013) found that individualist self disclosure concerning sexual thoughts is higher than that of collectivist cultures.
- Hendrick (2004): Strong correlation between satisfaction and self disclosure
What study supports self disclosure?
Hendrick (2004)
Findings of Hendrick (2004):
-Studied dating couples and found strong correlations between levels of satisfaction and self disclosure.
- More satisfaction = more commitment to the relationship
What 2 facial characteristics increase physical attractiveness?
- Symmetrical faces (sign of genetic fitness)
- Neotenous faces (trigger a caring instinct)
What is the halo effect?
The preconceived ideas about the personality traits attractive people must have.
- It becomes a self fulfilling prophecy because we behave more positively towards them.
What factors affect physical attractiveness?
- Symmetrical/neotenous faces
- Halo effect
- Matching Hypothesis
What study acts as evidence that symmetrical/neotenous faces are more attractive?
Shackleford and Larson (1997)
What study acts as support for the halo effect?
Palmer and Peterson (2012)
What did Palmer and Peterson (2012) find?
- Physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable and competent compared to unattractive people.
Who created the Computer Dance Study?
Walster (1969)
What theory did the Computer Dance Study concern?
Matching Hypothesis
Procedure of the Computer Dance Study (1969):
Male and female students invited to a dance, rated for physical attractiveness and completed a questionnaire. They were told about this data themselves and given a partner for the evening based on this data (they were actually assigned randomly).
Findings of the Computer Dance Study (1969):
- Rejected the Matching Hypothesis
- Those who were physically attractive were liked the most and were asked out, regardless of how attractive the people asking them out were.
What study is based on individual differences concerning importance of physical attractiveness?
Towhey (1979)
Procedure of Towhey (1979)
Asked male and female participants to rate how much they would like a target individual based on a photograph and biographical info.
- Also completed a questionnaire to measure sexist attitudes.
What is Filter Theory?
Explains relationship formation. Filters reduce the range of available romantic partners.
Findings of Towhey (1979)
- People who scored high on the questionnaire for sexist attitudes were more influence by physical attractiveness.
What are the 3 main theories that affect attraction?
Physical Attractiveness
Matching Hypothesis
Filter Theory
What are the 3 levels of filters in chronological order?
- Social demography
- Similarity in attitudes
- Complementarity
What does the first filter in the Filter Theory concern?
Proximity/geographical location
What does the second filter in the Filter Theory concern?
Agreement on basic values.
What does the third filter in the Filter Theory concern?
‘Opposites attract’
Evaluation of Filter Theory:
- Lack of temporal validity: online dating has reduced importance of social demographic variables
- Supportive research: Winch (1958) - found similarity of personality, interests and attitudes are typical in the earliest stages (face validity).
- Cause and effect issues: Anderson (2003) - found cohabiting partners become more emotionally similar over time (emotional convergence).
What study acts as evidence for emotional convergence (opposing the filter theory)?
Anderson (2003)
What study acts as supportive research for the Filter Theory?
Winch (1958)
What type of theory is Social Exchange Theory?
Economic
What is the minimax principle?
Assumes that people try to maximise the rewards they obtain from a relationship and minimise the costs.
What is the main equation in the social exchange theory?
Rewards - costs = outcome
We commit to the relationship if the outcome is profitable.
What are the key points of social exchange theory?
Rewards
Costs
Minimax principle
Economic
Comparison Level
Comparison Level for Alternatives
According to social exchange theory, what are the 4 stages of relationship development?
- Sampling stage
- Bargaining stage
- Commitment stage
- Institutionalisation stage
What is the comparison level?
How satisfied individuals are with the rewards and costs depends on what they have come to expect from previous relationships.
What is the comparison level for alternatives?
The level of satisfaction depends on the rewards and costs that would be involved if they formed a relationship with someone else.
Who proposed the Social Exchange Theory and in what year?
Thibault and Kelley (1959)
Evaluation of social exchange theory:
- Strong validity (population validity): can explain abusive relationships and friendships. High ability to generalise.
- Vague concepts due to being too simplistic. Real world costs and rewards are harder to define.
- Beta bias: minimises sex differences, men and women may perceive what counts as a reward and cost in different ways.
What is the key assumption of equity theory?
People strive to achieve fairness in their relationships
What does equity mean?
Fairness
What does equity theory state that people will do if they perceive inequity in a relationship?
Attempt to restore it
What did equity theory develop in response to?
Criticisms of social exchange theory
Who developed equity theory and when?
Walster (1978)
What type of theory is Equity Theory?
Economic
What are the 3 economic theories of romantic relationships?
- Social Exchange Theory
- Equity Theory
- Rusbult’s Investment Model
What types of attempts can be done to restore equity in a relationship according to Equity Theory?
- Put in less/more
- Change the amount you demand from it
- Change perception of inputs/outputs
What are the key points of Equity Theory?
- Profit
- Distribution
- Dissatisfaction (as a result of inequity)
- Equity (fairness) and inequity
- Realignment
‘Overbenefitted partners can also be dissatisfied with inequity.’ True or false
True
Evaluation of Equity Theory:
- Research support: Utne (1984) found that couples who considered their relationship equitable were more satisfied.
- Cultural bias (ethnocentrism): Individualist cultures value equity more than collectivist cultures (who prefer overbenefitting).
- Individual differences: Huseman (1987): Benevolents and Entitleds. Not universal
What are the 2 types of partners according to Huseman (1987)
- Benevolents (prepared to underbenefit)
- Entitleds (want to overbenefit)
What study highlights individual differences which contradict Equity Theory?
Huseman (1987)
What study acts as research support for Equity Theory?
Utne (1984)
Who developed the Investment Model and when?
Rusbult (2011)
What are relationships maintained by according to Rusbult’s Investment Model?
Commitment
What can commitment be strengthened by according to Rusbult’s Investment Model?
Satisfaction
Investment
What can commitment be weakened by according to Rusbult’s Investment Model?
Presence of alternatives to the relationship/quality of alternatives.
What type of theory is Rusbult’s Investment Model?
Economic
According to Rusbult’s Investment Model, what equation results in satisfaction?
Outcome of relationship (Rewards - Costs) surpasses comparison level
What 3 concepts influence commitment level according to Rusbult’s Investment Model?
Satisfaction
Alternatives
Investment
What does the commitment level influence according to Rusbult’s Investment Model?
Stay or leave decision
What is investment (in terms of relationships)?
Anything an individual puts into a relationship that will be lost if they leave it.
Examples of investment into a relationship:
Financial (house)
Temporal (time spent together)
Emotional (welfare of children)
What did Rusbult suggest was not enough to explain commitment from the Social Exchange Theory?
Comparison level and comparison level for alternatives
Evaluation of Rusbult’s Investment Model:
- Explains abusive relationships (high investment, poor economic alts)
- Research support (Rusbult (1983): College students complete questionnaire over 7 months. High investment and low alternatives were directly correlated with higher satisfaction. Resulted in higher commitment and lower change of breaking up.
- Methodological concerns of research support (self report technique)
What is the main research support study for Rusbult’s Investment Model?
Rusbult (1983)
What did Rusbult (1983) use to gain data on satisfaction, investment and alternatives of college student relationships?
Questionnaires
Who created the breakdown model of relationships?
Duck (2007)
What did Duck identify as the 3 reasons for relationship breakdown?
Lack of skills
Lack of stimulation
Maintenance difficulties
What 2 categories of causes did Duck identify as reasons for relationship breakdown?
Predisposing factors
Precipitating factors
Are predisposing factors internal or external?
Internal
Example of a predisposing factor causing relationship breakdown?
Emotional instability of one partner
Are precipitating factors internal or external?
External
Example of a precipitating factor causing relationship breakdown?
Reduced proximity
What are the 4 phases of relationship breakdown according to Duck (2007)
- Intra-psychic
- Dyadic
- Social
- Grave-dressing
What does intra-psychic stage of relationship breakdown involve?
Social withdrawal
Re-evaluation of alternatives to the relationship.
Resentment and brooding on faults and costs
What does the dyadic stage of relationship breakdown involve?
What does the social stage of relationship breakdown involve?
What does the grave-dressing stage of relationship breakdown involve?
