Relationships Flashcards
1
Q
What is sexual selection?
A
An evolutionary explanation of partner preference. Attributes or behaviours that increase reproductive success are passed on and may become exaggerated over future generations of offspring.
2
Q
What are the two main forms of sexual selection?
A
Intra-sexual (within) which is mate competition
Inter-sexual (between) which is mate selection
3
Q
What is intra-sexual selection?
A
- Preferred male strategy
- Refers to competition between males to be able to mate with females
- Winner reproduces and passes on characteristics that contributed to his victory to his offspring
- Leads to dimorphism (differences between men and women)
Larger, stronger, more aggressive males win - Anisogamy dictates males mate with as many fertile women as possible and have a preference for characteristics of youth and fertility
4
Q
What is inter-sexual selection?
A
- Preferred strategy of the female – quality over quantity.
- Ova are rarer than sperm and require greater energy to produce. Women therefore need to be choosy and pick the most genetically fit partner who is able and willing to provide resources.
- This female preference determines which features are passed on to their offspring.
E.g if height is considered an attractive trait then, over successive generations of females, it would increase in the male population because females would mate with tall males and, over time produce sons who are taller with each generation.
5
Q
What is Fisher’s hypothesis?
A
‘Sexy son hypothesis’ - a female mates with a male who has a desirable characteristic, and this ‘sexy’ trait is inherited by son. This increases the likelihood that successive generations of females will mate with her offspring.
6
Q
What is anisogamy?
A
differences between male and female sex cells
7
Q
Difference between gametes in males and females?
A
male = sperm
female = egg/ova
8
Q
Difference between reproductive life in males and females?
A
male = long so can father thousands
female = short only between puberty and menopause
9
Q
Difference between characteristics sought through intersexual selection in males and females?
A
male = young, hourglass figure, large eyes, rosy cheeks
female = faithful, strong, committed, gain resources
10
Q
Difference between reproductive behaviour in males and females?
A
male = promiscuous
female = be choosy
11
Q
What did Buss and Schmitt research?
A
men tend to be more likely to have short-term relationships or one night-stands than women
supports evolutionary theory because men have a promiscuous reproductive behaviour and a long reproductive life
12
Q
What did Buss research?
A
asked male and female students to imagine their current boy/girlfriend either having sex with someone else or in love with them. they were wired up to measure stress responses. men became more distressed at sex, women at partner in love with someone else.
supports evolutionary theory because women want committed and faithful men who will provide for them. men want their genes passed on and don’t want to care for another man’s baby.
13
Q
What did Ellis and Symons research?
A
found that men are more likely to have sexual dreams than women, especially those involving multiple or anonymous partners and strangers.
promiscuous even when unconscious = evolutionary drive
14
Q
What was Clark and Hatfield’s study about?
A
conducted a study to investigate the differences in reproductive behaviour between men and women
15
Q
What was Clark and Hatfield’s experiment?
A
attractive male and female experimenters approached strnagers on an american uni campus and said:
’ Hi, I’ve noticed you around campus and I find you very attractive’ and then asked them one of three questions:
- Would you go on a date with me?
- Would you go back to my apartment?
- Would you have sex with me?
16
Q
What were results for males?
A
- 50%
- 69%
- 75%
17
Q
What were results for females?
A
- 50%
- 6%
- 0%
18
Q
What are the strengths of the evolutionary theory?
A
- evidence = clark + hattfield
- research support = buss survey
19
Q
What are the weaknesses of the evolutionary theory?
A
- lacks temporal validity = bereszkei argues women have changed preferences
20
Q
What is self-disclosure?
A
a process of communication by which one person reveals information about themselves to another.
21
Q
What is self-penetration theory?
A
gradual process of revealing your inner self to someone else. or giving your deepest thoughts and feelings
22
Q
What did Altman and Taylor believe?
A
self-disclosure has two elements – breadth and depth and as both of these increase, romantic partners become more committed to each other.
23
Q
How does a relationship start?
A
We start with disclosing a high amount of information but it is low-risk and superficial information we would tell to anyone. The breadth of the disclosure is narrow and many topics are ‘off-limits’ at the start of a relationship. We don’t want to reveal too much too soon.
24
Q
How does a relationship develop?
A
self-disclosure becomes deeper, removing more and more layers to reveal our true selves. The topics cover wider areas and include things that are really important to us. Eventually we reveal intimate, high-risk information e.g painful memories and experiences, strongly held beliefs and secrets.
25
What do Reish and Shaver believe?
argue for a relationship to develop, as well as increase in breadth and depth there needs to be a reciprocal element to disclosure. Once you have decided to disclose something that reveals your true self, hopefully your partner will respond in a way that is rewarding, with understanding, empathy and also their own intimate thoughts and feelings. So there is a balance of self-disclosure between both partners in a successful romantic relationship, which increases feelings of intimacy and deepens the relationship
26
What are the strengths of self-disclosure?
- Research from Hass + Stafford - 57% of gay men found self-disclosure was main way to maintain relationships
- Research shows self disclosure is attractive - Kleinke
27
What are the weaknesses of self-disclosure?
- Not true for all cultures that increasing depth + breadth leads to better relationships - NuTang compared USA and China
28
How do symmetrical faces affect attractiveness?
Shackleford and Larsen (1997) found that people with symmetrical faces are rated as more attractive. This is because it may be an honest signal of genetics (symmetrical face shows a lack of genetic defects which can be passed onto offspring).
29
How does the halo effect affect attractiveness?
Describes how physical attractiveness has a disproportionate influence on our judgements of a person's other attributes e.g. personality
30
How do neotenous features affect attractiveness?
People are also attracted to faces with neotenous (baby-face) features such as widely separated and large eyes, a delicate chin, and a small nose – because these trigger a protective or caring instinct, a valuable resource for females wanting to reproduce.
31
How does the matching hypothesis affect attractiveness?
People choose romantic partners who are roughly similar attractiveness to each other
32
What are the strengths of physical attractiveness?
- Some traits seem to be universally considered attractive - Cunningham found all men find large eyes, small nose etc.
- Support for Halo effect - Peterson + Peterson found people thought attractive people were politically knowledgeable and competent
33
What are the weaknesses of physical attractiveness?
- Research against matching hypothesis - Taylor found online dating people go for more attractive
34
What is the filter model?
Kerckhoff and Davis - at each stage people are filtered down until the individual looking for a relationship is left with the most desirable partners
35
What is stage one?
Social Demography
36
What is Social Demography?
These include geographical location (proximity), social class, level of education, ethnic group, religion e.t.c. You are more likely to meet people you share demographic characteristics with. These people will be the most accessible and it does not require great effort to get to know them.
Anyone who is ‘too different’ (too far away, too middle class, too old) is discounted. This means you are more likely to form a relationship with someone who is socially and culturally similar e.g same ethnicity, religious beliefs, educational level to you.
37
What is stage 2?
Similarity in attitudes
38
What is Similarity in attitudes?
- People who share our attitudes, interests and beliefs are easier to get along with
- If we don't have much in common, we are far less likely to want to continue to build a relationship
39
What is stage 3?
Complementarity
40
What is Complementarity?
Concerns the ability of romantic partners to meet each other’s needs. Two partners complement each other when they have traits that the other lacks. E.g one partner may be more dominant, the other partner may be shyer, one like to care for others and the other wants to be cared for.
Kerchoff and Davis argue that the need for complementarity was more important for the long-term couples. At the later stage of the relationship – opposites attract.
Complementarity is attractive as it gives the partners the feeling that together they make a whole, which adds depth to the relationship and makes it more likely to flourish.
41
What happens once you've made it through these stages?
Field of desirability
42
What are the strengths of the filter model?
- Research support - Gruber-Baldini found couples who share more similarities were more likely to be together 20 years late
43
What are the weaknesses of the filter model?
- Bidirectional ambiguity - Davis and Rusbult discovered an attitude alignment
- Lacks temporal validity - online dating
44
What is the theory of romantic relationships craeted by Thibaut and Kelley?
Social Exchange theory
45
What is the SET?
- if rewards outweigh costs then relationship is in 'profit'
- if costs outweigh rewards then relationship is in 'loss'
46
What is comparison level?
involves comparing the current relationship with one's view of what a relationship should look like
47
What is comparison level for alternatives?
involves comparing the current relationship with other potential relationships on offer *always link to profit/loss*
48
What are the stages of relationship development?
sampling, bargaining, commitment, institutionalisation
49
What is sampling?
many relationships will be started while the person 'tries out' the potential rewards and costs associated with being a couple
50
What is bargaining?
beginning of relationship, when romantic partners start exchanging various rewards and costs, negotiating and identifying what is profitable
51
What is commitment?
as time goes on, the sources of costs and rewards become more predictable and the relationship becomes more stable as rewards increase and costs lessen
52
What is institutionalisation?
the couple settle into the relationship, setting an expectation for what rewards and costs will be tolerated for the continuation of the relationship
53
What are the strengths of the social exchange theory?
- Possible to enhance a relationship using the concepts put forward by the theory - Gottman and Levenson found in successful marriages ratio of positives to negatives was 5:2 compared to unsuccessful 1:1
54
What are the weaknesses of the social exchange theory?
- Bidirectional ambiguity - Argyle argues we don't measure costs and rewards in a relationship until we are unhappy
- May be more applicable - Clark and Mills argue we do SET in work relationships but not romantic relationships
55
What is equity?
based on the idea of fairness for each partner; emphasises the need for each partner to experience a balance between their cost / effort and their benefit / reward.
56
What does Walster argue?
if one person puts a lot into the relationship it is equitable for them to receive a lot out of the relationship, whereas their partner may only give a small amount to the relationship but receive a small amount of rewards out of it. This would be equitable but not equal.
57
What happens when a partner is putting a lot into a relationship but getting little out of it?
A partner who is subject to inequity becomes distressed and dissatisfied with the relationship
Positive correlation: the greater the inequity the greater the dissatisfaction
58
What happens when a partner is putting little into a relationship but getting a lot out of it?
overbenefitting (guilt/shame)
59
What makes someone the most dissatisfied in a relationship?
change in the level of perceived equity as time goes on.
E.g at the beginning of a relationship it may feel natural to put in more than you receive but as time goes on and you keep putting more in and getting less out you will become more dissatisfied.
60
How to deal with inequity?
behavioural or cognitive shift
61
What is a behavioural shift?
The more unfair a relationship feels the harder they will work to restore equity – but they must believe change is possible.
62
What is a cognitive shift?
Some partners change their perception on rewards and costs so that their relationship feels more equitable to them, even if nothing actually changes.
E.g what was once seen as a cost in a relationship e.g untidiness is now seen as a norm (essentially you lower your standards! 😢😢😢)
63
What are the strengths with the equity theory?
research support - Utne (1984) carried out a survey of 118 recently-married couples (husbands and wives between 16 and 45 years), measuring equity with two self-report scales. - Found couples who considered their relationship equitable were more satisfied than those who saw themselves as over benefitting or under benefitting. - Increases validity of equity theory as an explanation of romantic relationships
64
What are the weaknesses with the equity theory?
Individual Differences - Huesman et al. (1987) suggest that some people are less sensitive to equity than others. They describe some partners as benevolents, who are prepared to contribute more to the relationship than they get out of it. Others are entitleds who believe they deserve to be overbenefitted and accept it without feeling distressed or guilty.
Assumes equity is a universal feature of romantic relationships across all cultures - Aumer-Ryan et al (2007) found cultural differences in the link between equity and satisfaction.
Couples of individualistic cultures considered their relationships to be the most satisfying when the relationship was equitable
Partners in relationships from collectivist cultures were most satisfied when over benefiting.
65
According to Rusbult's investment model, what three factors do commitment level depend on?
- satisfaction level
- comparison with alternatives
- investment size
66
What is satisfaction level?
judged by comparing rewards and costs (same as social exchange theory!)
67
What is comparison with alternatives?
involves comparing the current relationship with other potential relationships on offer (same as social exchange theory!)
68
What is investment size?
the resources associated with a romantic relationship which the partner would lose if the relationship were to end
69
What are intrinsic investments?
any resource directly put into the relationship
tangible = money, possessions
intangible = energy, emotion, self-disclosure
70
What are extrinsic investments?
resources that previously did not feature in the relationship but are now closely associated with it
71
Why do dissatisfied partners stay in a relationship?
high committed level! made an investment they don't want to go to waste therefore they will work hard to maintain and repair a damaged relationship, especially when it hits a rough patch
72
What are the relationship maintenance levels?
Falafel wrap!
Forgiveness, willingness to sacrifice, ridiculing alternatives, accommodation, positive illusion
73
What are the strengths to Rusbult's investment theory?
Can explain why people stay in a relationship when they are 'at a loss' - Rusbult and Martz studied 'battered' women at a shelter and found those most likely to return to an abusive partner had the fewest alternatives and most investments.
Research support - Le and Agnew did meta-analysis of 11,000 participants from 5 countries found that satisfaction, comparison and investment all predicted commitment. relationships where commitment was greatest lasted the longest
74
What are the weaknesses to Rusbult's investment theory?
Oversimplifies concept of investment - Goodfriend and Agnew argue there is more investment than the resources you have already put into the relationship, argue 'further plans' should be integrated
75
What is Duck’s Phase Model
of relationship breakdown?
- Duck believed the ending of a relationship is not a one-off event but a process that takes time and goes through four distinct phases.
- Each phase is marked by one partner (or both) reaching a ‘threshold’, a point at which their perception of the relationship changes.
- Break ups begin when a partner realises they are dissatisfied with the relationship and distressed about the way things are going.
76
What is stage one of Duck’s Phase Model?
Intra-psychic Phase
77
What is the threshold of the intra-psychic phase?
‘I can’t stand this anymore’, indicating a determination that something needs to change
78
What is info about the intra-psychic phase?
- Cognitive process occurring within individual
- Dissatisfied partner broods on partners shortcomings
- They privately mull ideas over
- Weigh up pros and cons of relationship and weigh up against the alternatives (including being alone)
79
What is stage two of Duck’s Phase Model?
Dyadic Phase
80
What is the threshold of the dyadic phase?
They eventually come to the conclusion ‘I would be justified in withdrawing’.
81
What is info about the dyadic phase?
- Series of confrontations between partners where relationship dissatisfaction is aired
- Anxiety, hostility, complaints about lack of equity, resentment over imbalanced roles and a rethinking of the commitment that kept the partners together
- Two possible outcomes – renewed desire to repair relationship or go on to next phase
82
What is stage three of Duck’s Phase Model?
social phase
83
What is the threshold of the social phase?
Dissatisfied partner concludes ‘I mean it’.
84
What is info about the social phase?
- Focus is now wider including social networks as break-up made public
- Partners seek support and try to forge pacts
- Gossip is traded and encouraged
- Some friends may blame one partner, some will fasten the break-up by providing previously secret info and some will try and repair the relationship
- Usually point of no return
85
What is stage four of Duck’s Phase Model?
Grave-Dressing Phase
86
What is the threshold of the grave-dressing phase?
‘It’s inevitable’.
87
What is info about the grave-dressing phase?
- Focus on aftermath
- Spinning a favorable story to the public to save face and protect their reputation
- Gossip used to keep ‘social credit’ blaming circumstances/partner not themselves
- Also create a personal story you can live with and tidying up memories – may see previous positive things about partner in a more negative light
- Dissatisfied partner concludes – ‘time to get a new life’
88
What are the strengths of Duck's phase model?
Real world application - Duck recommends that people in the intra-psychic phase could be encouraged to focus their brooding on positive aspects of their partner
Dyadic phase – improves communication and social skills would be beneficial to create more stability in relationship
89
What are the weaknesses of Duck's phase model?
- Not apply universally to all cultures - Moghaddam (1993) relationships in individualistic cultures are generally voluntary and frequently come to an end (e.g divorce or separation).
Relationships in collectivist cultures are more likely to be obligatory, less easy to end and often involve the wider family. It is therefore unlikely that one theory can explain relationship dissolution in both cultures.
- Alternative theories - Flemee’s (1995) ‘Fatal Attraction Hypothesis’ argues that the causes of relationship breakdown can be found in the attractive qualities that bought the romantic partners together. The relationship is threatened by getting too much of what the partners were looking for. The great sense of humour someone fell in love with may become ‘he can’t take anything seriously’.
90
What does FtF relationships mean?
face to face relationships
91
What does CMC relationships mean?
computer mediated communication
92
What is reduced cues theory?
- sproull and kiesler believe cmc relationships are less successful because they lack many of the cues we rely on in ftf relationships e.g. nonverbal or appearance
- lack cues of emotional states like facial expressions. this leads to de-individualisation as it reduces people's sense of individual identity, which in turn encourages disinhibition in relating to others
- more likely to involve blunt and aggressive communication leading to reluctance to self-disclose
93
How can individuals get around lack of emotional expression in CMC?
facetime, emojis, sending photos, voice messages
94
What is the hyperpersonal model?
- walther argues online relationships can be more personal and involve self-disclosure at a faster, intense and intimate level.
- cooper and sportolari say they also end more quickly as high excitement isn't matched by high levels of trust 'boom and bust'
NO TRUST
95
What is the absence of gating in virtual relationships?
- ftf interaction is gated as it involves many features that can interfere with early development of a relationship e.g. social anxiety, stammer
- mckenna and bargh argue an advantage of cmc is the absence of gating meaning a relationship can develop to the point where self-disclosure becomes more frequent and deeper and the relationship can 'get off the ground'
96
What are the strengths of virtual relationships?
- research support - whitty and joinson found questions asked in online discussions are direct, probing and intimate
97
What are the weaknneses of virtual relationships?
- doesn't reflect the wide variety of cmc relationships - paine says people self-disclose more in facebook status updates than in an online e-commerce webform
- advancements in technology - walther and tidwell say people in online relationships use other cues like timing of message and emojis
98
What is a parasocial relationship?
one-sided, unrecipricoal, relationship, usually with a celebrity in which the 'fan' spends a lot of emotional energy, communication and time
99
What are the three levels of a parasocial relationship?
1. entertainment-social
2. intense-personal
3. borderline-pathological
100
What is the entertainment-social level?
least intense level. source of entertainment, fuel for social interaction.
101
What is the intense-personal level?
greater personal involvement with a celebrity. frequent obsessive thoughts and intense feelings
102
What is the borderline pathological level?
uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviour. might be spending a large amount of money on a celebrity related object or being willing to perform an illegal act because the celebrity said so.
103
What is absorption in the absorption-addiction model?
seeking fulfilment in celeb worship motivates an individual to focus their attention as far as possible on the celeb, to become preoccupied with the celeb and identify with them
104
What is addiction in the absorption-addiction model?
the individual needs to sustain their commitment to the relationship by feeling a stronger and closer involvement with the celebrity. this may lead to extreme behaviours such as delusional thinking
105
How does having an insecure-resistant attachment impact parasocial relationships?
most likely! because they seek to have unfulfilled needs met, but without threat of rejection, break-up and disappointment.
106
How does having an insecure-avoidant attachment impact parasocial relationships?
prefer to avoid the pain and rejection of relationships altogether, whether they be social or parasocial
107
What are the strengths of parasocial relationships?
- research support with body image
- appear to be universal with harry potter
108
What are the weaknesses of parasocial relationships?
no link with attachment
