Relationships

Question 1

Outline the 2 types of sexual selection

Answer 1

Intra-sexual
Inter-sexual

Question 2

AO3
Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences
(Gender bias in short-term mating strategies)

Answer 2

One weakness of the theory is that there is gender bias in short term mating strategies.
The theory suggests men want casual sex and want as many women as possible.
However this trait couldn’t have evolved without willing females.
Every time a man has sex with a new female partner, the female is also having sex with a new partner. Therefore this weakens our acceptance of the theory as it is gender bias

Question 3

AO3
Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences
(Evidence from Hatfield and Clarke)

Answer 3

One strength of the theory is that there is supporting research from Hatfield and Clarke
For example, they found that when male college students were asked by a stranger they found attractive ‘Will you have sex with me?’, 75% of them said yes compared to 0% of females who said yes.
This suggests that men evolved psychological mechanisms to ensure success in short-term mating: these include the desire for sexual variety and a willingness to consent to sex with strangers
This strengthens our acceptance of the theory as there is supporting research

Question 4

AO3
Evolutionary Explanations for partner preferences
(Importance of fertility)

Answer 4

One strength of evolutionary explanations for partner prefrences is that there is supporting research from Miller who calculated the amount of tips earned by lap dancers at a strip club. The amount earned depended on what stage of the menstrual cycle they were at.Those in the fertile phase of their cycle earned almost twice as many tips as those who were not.
This suggests that men place more value on more fertile women as they are easier to procreate with and produce offspring
This strengthens our acceptance of the explanations

Question 5

AO1
Outline the matching hypothesis

Answer 5

When seeking out a romantic partner we want to ensure that their social desirability equals our own.
We have to first assess our own market value and then select the best available candidates.
Although you would be attracted to all socially desirability partners, by opting for those similar to you, you would maximise your chances of success.
We make realistic choices based on what we want think we can get.

Question 6

AO1
Outline the halo effect

Answer 6

People who are judged to be more physically attractive are typically perceived in a positive light for other trait.
Dion et al (1972) found that attractive people are consistently rated as successful, kind and sociable when compared with unattractive people.
This means that we not only believe that good-looking people are more physically attractive, we expect them to have other desirable characteristics as well and tend to behave more positively towards them.

Question 7

AO3
Outline One weakness of the matching hypothesis
(complex matching)

Answer 7

One weakness of the matching hypothesis is that research fails to find a consistent link between PA and partner preferences. However Sprecher and Hatfield explain this by arguing that PA is just not the sole factor that determines a relationship and that a person may compensate for a lack of PA with desirable traits e.g. personality, status and wealth. This is called complex matching and can explain why people are able to attract partners more PA than themselves by offering compensatory assets.

Question 8

AO3
Outline one weakness of the matching hypothesis
(Opposing research)

Answer 8

One weakness of the matching hypothesis is that there is opposing research.
The research found that dating decisions were based on a similarity of attractiveness between people and a potential date. Instead, there was a preference for attractive partners in general, suggesting people do not consider their own ‘market value’ when choosing a date.
This research contradicts the matching hypothesis which states people pick partners based on their own market value
Therefore this weakens our acceptance of the matching hypothesis

Question 9

AO3
Outline one strength of the Halo effect

Answer 9

One strength of the halo effect is that there is supporting research from Palmer and Peterson.
They found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable and competent than unattractive people. The Halo effect is so powerful that it has persisted even when ppts knew that the ‘knowledgable’ people had no expertise.
This suggests that the halo effect has everyday real-life applications, thus strengthening our acceptance of the theory

Question 10

AO1
Outline Filter Theory

Answer 10

People filter possible mates from a range of eligible candidates. The theory suggests that people use different methods at different levels of the process.
We start with social variables such as race or class, and we then move to more individual and internal values such as people’s personalities.
For social variables, we are more likely to seek similarity whereas for internal values it may be more important to seek complementary characteristics
3 factors:
- Social demography
- Similarity of attitudes
- Complementarity of needs

Question 11

What are the 3 filters stated in filter theory

Answer 11

-SOCIAL DEMOGRAPHY - Geographical location, social class, level of education, ethnic group, religion

-SIMILARITY OF ATTITUDES - Partners will often share important beliefs and values, partly because the field of available has already been narrowed by the first filter to those who have significant social and cultural characteristics in common

-COMPLEMENTARITY OF NEEDS - Concerns the ability of romantic partners to meet each other’s needs. Two partners complement each other when they have traits the other person lacks. E.g young women with no resources may look for older men with wealth

Question 12

What is meant by self-disclosure?

Answer 12

-Involves revealing personal information about yourself to the other person.

-These revelations strengthen the relationship if used appropriately

Question 13

AO1
Outline social penetration theory

Answer 13

-Self disclosure is a major concept in Altman and Taylor’s social penetration theory
-When one persona reveals information about themselves this indicates and displays trust towards the other person
-More information revealed, the romantic partners ‘penetrate’ more deeply into each others lives, gaining a greater understanding of each other and a greater connection
-The theory suggests there are different levels of self disclosure which is represented by and onion and its layers
-Deeper the self disclosure, stronger feelings of closeness and relationship satisfaction
-Low risk and high risk information. More likely to reveals low risk on first couple of dates because high risk might put the other person off and they may feel you have revealed too much too soon

Question 14

What are the 6 layers of the self disclosure onion?

Answer 14

1. Biographical data (Age, gender, name)
2. Preferences in music, food and clothes
3. Goals and aspirations
4. Religious convictions
5. Deeply held fears and fantasies
6. Concept of the self

Question 15

AO3
Outline one weakness of filter theory
(Lack of temporal validity)

Answer 15

One weakness of social demography as a filter in the filter theory is that it lacks temporal validity
For example, online dating apps such as tinder may have changed the necessity for certain social demographic variables such as proximity, social class and religion
These apps give individuals a wide range of options and it is likely you will ‘match’ with people of different cultural ethnicities
Therefore the filter theory lacks temporal validity because the way relationships start is way different to 70 years ago

Question 16

AO3
Outline one weakness of the filter theory
(Complementarity of needs may not be important)

Answer 16

One weakness of the filter theory is that there is evidence suggesting that the concept of complimentarity of needs may be unimportant.
For example, researchers asked 760 college students to rate personality traits they want a partner to have on a scale. They found that the students looked for individuals who had a similar personality to themselves.
This suggests that the concept of complementarity of needs isn’t applicable in real life and it is not an accurate representation of how people filter potential partners, thus weakening our acceptance for the filter theory as an explanation.

Question 17

AO3
Outline one weakness of the filter theory
(Weakness of similarity of attitudes, cause and effect)

Answer 17

One weakness of filter theory is that there is no direction of cause and effect
Filter theory theory suggests that people are initially attracted to each other because they are similar.
However research from Davis found that an attitude alignment on long term relationships. Overtime, romantic partners bring their attitudes into line with each others suggesting that similarity is an EFFECT OF ATTRACTION AND BECAUSE WE ARE ATTRACTED, WE BECOME SIMILAR.
Thus this weakens our acceptance of filter theory.

Question 18

AO3
Outline one strength of social penetration theory
(Supporting research)

Answer 18

One strength of social penetration theory is that it is supported by research
For example, Sprecher and Hendrick studied Hetro sexual dating couples and found strong positive correlations between several measures of relationship satisfaction and self-disclosure
This suggests that couples are more happy in a relationship when they and their partner share information about themselves to each other, this is what coincides with social penetration theory thus strengthening our acceptance of the theory

Question 19

AO3
Outline one strength of social penetration theory
(Real life applications)

Answer 19

One strength of self disclosure is that it has real life applications.
Research into self disclosure can help people who want to improve relationships, increase intimacy and strengthen the bond. For example Hass and Stafford found that 57% of couples said that open and honest self-disclosure was the main way they maintained their relationships. This suggests that self disclosure can be used in real life relationships in order to improve them. Therefore this strengthens our acceptance of self disclosure in social penetration theory as it has positive real life effects. However one issue with this research is that self report studies can be subject to social desirability bias, discrediting the plausibility of these findings, weakening acceptance of the research

Question 20

AO3
Outline one weakness of social penetration theory
(Cultural differences)

Answer 20

One weakness of social penetration theory is that it has been criticised for culture bias as saying that self disclosure will lead to a more satisfying and intimate relationship is not true for all cultures.
Tang et al reviewed research regarding sexual self disclosure and concluded that men/women in USA disclose significantly more than men/women in China.
This suggests we cant generalise western individualistic relationship standards to those in collectivist cultures. Therefore this weakens our acceptance of social penetration theory as it is not generalisable to other cultures and demonstrates culture bias

Question 21

AO1
Outline Social exchange theory

Answer 21

-All behaviour is a sense of exchange
-People try to maximise rewards and minimise costs
-Satisfaction is determined by the exchange of rewards and costs —-> financial costs, time…
-Rewards: Being cared for, companionship and sex…
-Reward - Costs = Outcome

-Comparison level is a standard against which all relationships are judged
-We use prior experiences to set this standard of how the relationship should be.
-If we think that a potential relationship can offer more profit than the comparison level, we stay in the relationship, if it is below then we consider leaving
-People use social norms as a comparison level
-People with low self-esteem will have a low comparison level and will not expect much. The reverse is true for those with high self-esteem

-Comparison level for alternatives: partner weights up potential rewards for another partner minus the cost of ending this one

Question 22

AO3
Outline one weakness of Social exchange theory
(Problems with cause and effect)

Answer 22

One weakness of SET is that there are problems establishing cause and effect
Argyle argues that we don’t measure rewards and costs in a relationship nor do we consider the attractiveness of alternatives UNLESS we are dissatisfied with the current relationship
For example, being unhappy in a relationship may lead to a person questioning whether there are more rewards than costs in their relationships and the potential alternatives, but these thoughts occur only after the dissatisfaction has discovered.
This contradicts SET which assumes that assessing profit and loss causes unattraction whereas this implies because we are unattracted, we weigh up rewards and costs
Therefore this weakens our acceptance of SET as an explanation for romantic relationships

Question 23

AO3
Outline one weakness of Social exchange theory
(Reductionist)

Answer 23

One weakness of SET is that it has been criticised for ignoring other factors in a relationship. E.g. Love emotions and religion
Moreover, an individuals own rational belief system may ensure the relationship lasts and they will try stay committed to each other to make it last.
However, SET doesn’t consider this and simply assumes that if the loss outweighs the profit, the relationship will end. This is a very reductionist approach to viewing relationships thus weakening our acceptance of SET as an explanation of relationships

Question 24

AO3
Outline one strength of Social exchange theory
(RWA)

Answer 24

One strength of SET is that it has real world applications
For example, it has been found that in a good marriage, the ratio of positive to negative exchanges is 5:1, whereas in unsuccessful marriages the ratio is 1:1. Furthermore, Christensen reported that 2/3 of married couples reported improvements in their marriage after attending therapy.
This suggests that SET has real world applications which can be used to better marriages, thus strengthening our acceptance of SET as it has been supported by evidence from real life relationships

Question 25

AO1
Outline equity theory

Answer 25

-Suggests people strive to achieve fairness in their relationships
-Inequity has the potential to cause distress
-This happens when one person gives a great deal of input and gets little output in return, and vice versa
-Inequity doesn’t necessarily mean inequality. Two individuals can put in variable amounts and still maintain equity
-This is because a person holds subjective views on relative inputs and outputs of themselves and their partner
-If we fear inequity in our relationship we may try and change our inputs + outputs to restore equity
-May also compare to our comparison levels

Question 26

AO3
Outline one strength of equity theory
(support from monkeys)

Answer 26

One strength of the equity theory is that there is research support from monkeys
Brosnan found that female monkeys become very angry if they are denied a reward of grapes in return for playing a game. When another monkey who was not playing the game received the grapes instead, the monkeys got so angry they started throwing food at the experimenter. This suggests the importance of equity in relationships has ancient origins. Moreover, the monkeys got more angry if the injustice was in casual relationships than in intimate relationships
Therefore this strengthens our acceptance of the equity theory as an explanation for romantic relationships as it is backed by supporting research from monkeys

Question 27

AO3
Outline one evaluation of equity theory
(Gender bias)

Answer 27

One weakness of equity theory is that it has been criticised for gender bias.
Men and women are not equally affected by inequity
Women tend to perceive themselves as more under benefited and less over benefited than men
This suggests the theory doesn’t perceive mens and women’s views equally, thus weakening our acceptance of the theory

Question 28

AO3
Outline one weakness of equity theory
(Individual differences)

Answer 28

One of equity theory is that there is contradicting research from Huseman et al
Equity theory suggests that all couples strive for equity and fairness in a relationship
However, Huseman found that there are 3 different types of people in a relationship; Benevolents (who are givers and are more tolerant of inequity, Equity sensitives who follow equity theory and feel tension when there is inequity and lastly there are entitleds who believe they deserve to be over rewarded
This contradicts what equity theory says thus weakening our acceptance of the theory

Question 29

AO1
Outline the investment model (Rusbult 1983)

Answer 29

-The maintenance of a relationship is determined by commitment
-In this context; commitment refers to the likelihood that the relationship will persist
-Commitment can be strengthened by; satisfaction + investment
-Commitment is weakened by presence of alternatives
-Satisfaction - Outcome of a relationship (Rewards - costs)
-Investment - Anything that a person puts into a relationship that will be lost if it ends
-Intrinsic investment - Time, personal information, self disclosure
-Extrinsic investment - Shared things that may be lost; Shared pet, network of friends, children
-Quality of alternatives - If there is an attractive alternative it may lead to the relationship ending
-If you are a committed partner, you think about your partner more than alternatives and wont feel sad

Question 30

AO1
Outline Duck’s theory about relationship breakdown

Answer 30

-Duck argued that relationship breakdown is a gradual process which takes time
-Dissatisfaction is the catalyst. Break-up begins once the person realises they are dissatisfied
-Each stage is marked by one or both partners reaching a threshold. A point at which their perception of the relationship changes
-Inequitable relationships are more likely to create dissatisfaction than equitable ones

Question 31

AO1
Outline the 4 stages of the relationship breakdown model (Duck 2007)

Answer 31

Intrapsychic
Dyadic
Social
Grave dressing

Question 32

Outline what happens in the Intrapsychic phase of the relationship breakdown

Answer 32

-Brooding focus on the relationship and consideration of whether they would be better off without the relationship
-Individual hasn’t expressed feelings yet but may do it in other ways such as acting differently
-Feel burdened with feelings of resentment and feeling under-benefited

Question 33

Outline what happens in the Dyadic phase of the relationship breakdown

Answer 33

-Individuals confront their partner and begin to discuss feelings of discontent and the overall future of the relationship
-Feelings of guilt or anger are likely to surface
-Couples may think of the forces that bind them e.g. kids, mortgage, pets
-Relationship could be saved but only if both partners are motivated to do so

Question 34

Outline what happens in the social phase of the relationship breakdown

Answer 34

-News goes public to friends and family
-Crucial psychological moment as distress is now public
-Others may take sides, offer advice and support or their involvement can speed up the breakdown process through revelations about one or both partners
-It is harder for partners to deny there was a problem

Question 35

Outline what happens in the Grave dressing phase of the relationship breakdown

Answer 35

-Individual will say relationship failure was out of their control
-Partners attempt to justify their actions
-This stage is important as each partner must present themselves as being trustworthy and loyal
-The person constructs a story of the failed relationship which doesn’t make them look bad
-Partners strategically interpret their view of their partner e.g during the relationship the person liked their partner to be relaxed but now they portray them as lazy

Question 36

AO3
Outline one weakness (then turn it into a strength) of Duck’s relationship breakdown model.

(Ressurection)

Answer 36

One weakness of Duck’s model is that it is criticised for being incomplete. Duck later had to add the resurrection phase, suggesting personal growth.
Tashiro and Frazier found that undergraduate students who had just broken up experienced growth and development.
This means there is support for the resurrection stage in Duck’s model. People learn and grow, this is what coincides with the theory.
The original model is criticised due to a lack of depth, however, the addition of the resurrection phase now makes it a full and comprehensive explanation increasing its validity

Question 37

AO3
Outline one weakness of Duck’s relationship breakdown model

(Social phase)

Answer 37

One weakness of Duck’s model is that the ‘social phase’ has been criticised for not being generalisable to all age groups.
For example, relationships during teenage years may be perceived as less a ‘testing ground’ whereas with adult relationships there may be binding factors and consequences if the relationship ends.
The behaviours that occur at this stage vary depending on the stage of life. Duck does not acknowledge these added complexities and binding factors e.g. pets, mortgage, and children….
Therefore this weakness as the social phase lacks detail.

Question 38

AO3
Outline one strength of Duck’s relationship breakdown model.

(Benefits of grave dressing phase)

Answer 38

Research supports the importance of the grave dressing phase in dealing with the after-effects of relationship breakdown.
For example, Monroe found that students who experienced end of a romantic relationship had experienced a depressive episode. However, Tashiro and Frazier found that able to feel better about ending a relationship when they focused on situational factors rather than how their flaws ended the relationship.
This is a strength because it can help improve psychological and mental well-being and reduce the risk of depression by creating stories that play down their role in the breakup, they are preventing their psychological well-being

Question 39

AO1
Outline the reduced cues theory regarding virtual relationships

Answer 39

-SUGGESTS CMC RELATIONSHIPS ARE LESS EFFECTIVE THAN FACE-TO-FACE ONES BECAUSE THEY LACK MANY OF THE CUES WE NORMALLY DEPEND ON
-Includes non-verbal cues e.g. physical appearance/body language
-CMC particularly lacks cues to out emotional state, such as our facial expressions and tone of voice
-Leads to deindividuation as it reduces people’s sense of identity
-This encourages disinhibition when relating to others. Virtual relationships are therefore more likely to involve blunt and even aggressive communication
-As a result, people are less likely to self-disclose

Question 40

AO1
Outline the hyperpersonal model regarding virtual relationships

Answer 40

-Walther argues that online relationships can be personal and involve greater self-disclosure compared to face-to-face ones
-CMC relationships can develop quite quickly once self-disclosure happens but they can also end quite soon because the level of trust between relationship partners doesn’t match the high excitement level of interaction
-Online it is a lot easier to manipulate self-disclosure to promote intimacy by presenting yourself in a positive way
-Selective self-presentation - people have control over what to disclose and the cues they send
-Promotes anonymity

Question 41

Outline what is meant by the absence of gating in CMC

Answer 41

• Face-to-face interaction is gated because it involves many features that can interfere with the early development of a relationship
• The gate refers to an obstacle which can get in the way of the relationship e.g. physical attractiveness, social anxiety, height…
• This means a relationship can develop quickly so self-disclosure becomes more frequent and deeper
• Allows individuals to ‘make up’ fake identities about themselves online and present themselves in unrealistic ways

Question 42

AO3
Outline one weakness of Reduced cues theory (Virtual relationships)
(Cues are different rather than absent)

Answer 42

One criticism of reduced cues theory is that the theory suggests cues are absent in CMC relationships, however there might just be different types of cues instead. E.g. style, timing of messages and use of emojis… which may all be used as effective substitutes for facial expression and tone of voice.
The above evidence is a key flaw of the theory because it is still possible to convey emotional state through CMC.
Therefore this is a weakness because the success of CMC can’t be accounted for by the theory and doesn’t take into account the fact that different types of cues can be used.

Question 43

AO3
Outline one strength of the hyperpersonal model (Virtual relationships)
(Research support)

Answer 43

One strength of the hyperpersonal model is that there is research support for the theory. Researchers have studied CMC communication and evidence demonstrates that people are much more likely to ask direct, probing and inanimate questions which all increase self-disclosure
This means in online relationships, people are more likely to self-disclose information and present themselves in a positive light which is what coincides with the theory, thus increasing acceptance of the hyper-personal model of CMC relationships

Question 44

AO3
Weakness of Virtual relationships
(Relationships are multimodal)

Answer 44

One weakness of research into self-disclosure and CMC is that it does not acknowledge that relationships can be multimodal
For example, relationships can occur in both the online world as well as in the real world
This is a problem as research fails to acknowledge other possibilities. Theory is incomplete as we meet people in the real world too and this will also affect relationships, people may disclose more or less.
Therefore this weakens acceptance of the theory as it is incomplete

Question 45

3 stages of Parasocial relationships

Answer 45

Entertainment scale
Intense personal
Borderline pathological

Question 46

Explain what happens in the Entertainment scale

Answer 46

-Least intense level of celebrity worship
-Celebrity is viewed as a source of entertainment and fuel for social interaction
-People talk about celebrities for passing interest. Nothing abnormal

Question 47

Explain what happens in the intense personal stage

Answer 47

An intermediate level which reflects a greater personal development in a parasocial relationship with celebrity. E.g. Frequent obsessive thoughts

Question 48

Outline what happens in the borderline pathological stage

Answer 48

Strongest level of celebrity worship, featuring uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviours

Question 49

AO1
Outline the Absorption-addiction model

Answer 49

-Suggests people have deficiencies in their own life. E.g. Weak sense of self identity and also lack of fulfilment in their everyday relationship

-Allows people to escape from reality or a way of finding fulfilment that they can achieve in their actual relationships

• Someone who has an entertainment-social orientation to a certain celebrity may be triggered into a more intense involvement by some crisis or stressful life event

Question 50

Explain the Absorption aspect of the Absorption-addication model

Answer 50

Due to deficiencies they seek fulfilment in celebrity worship.
Motivates the individual to focus their attention on the celebrity to become preoccupied with their existence and identify with them

Question 51

Explain the Addiction aspect of the Absorption- addiction model

Answer 51

Individual needs to sustain their commitment to relationship by feeling a stronger and closer involvement with the celebrity
May lead to extreme behaviours such as stalking
Believe wants to reciprocate feelings

Question 52

AO1
Outline attachment theory as an explanation for par asocial relationships

Answer 52

-Bowlby’s attachment theory suggests difficulties with first attachment with caregiver may lead to troubles later in life

• Ainsworth identified two attachment types associated with unhealthy emotional development
• Insecure resistants are most likely to form PSR as they need ‘unfilled needs met’. They are able to get this fulfilment in a PSR that isn’t accompanied by threat of rejection, break up and disappointment that real life relationships can bring

-Insecure avoidant types refer to avoid pain and rejection of relationships altogether, whether they be parasocial or IRL