Relationships

Question 1

Sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour
Human reproductive behaviour

Answer 1

any behaviour which relates to opportunities to reproduce and pass on our genes

Sexual selection: Mate preference - Inter-section
Sexual selection - Mate competition- Intra-selection

Question 2

Parental investment

Answer 2

the amount of time, effort and resources which go into reproducing and rearing offspring

Question 3

Sexual selection

Answer 3

An evolutionary explanation of partner preferences. Attributes/behaviours that increase reproductive success are passed on and may become exaggerated over succeeding generations of offspring

Question 4

Inter-sexual selection

Answer 4

What?- When members of one biological sex choose mates of the opposite sex to mate with

Who?- Preferred by females - Females choose based on attractiveness and biology

Question 5

Inter-sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour
Choosiness

Answer 5

Females invest a greater amount of time, energy and resources into raising a child
So they need to be more careful when choosing a partner. They need to be sure their partner will provide the right genetic fit and will be willing to provide resources to support the female and the child.

Question 6

Runaway process: sexy son hypothesis

Answer 6

The runaway process is that female preference will determine which features are passed on to the offspring. E.g if height is a female preference it will increase in the male population over successive generations leading to this characteristic gradually becoming exaggerated

Question 7

The sexy son hypothesis

Answer 7

when a female mate will a male who has certain characteristics then their sons will have this ‘sexy’ trait which will make them more likely to be picked as mates by females, so the ‘sexy’ trait is perpetuated.

Why - As females choose based on attractiveness and biology

Question 8

Robert Trivers - Parental Investment
Male parental investment

Answer 8

• Investment is relatively small
• Large amounts of sperm
• Remains fertile throughout his life
• Capable of many mating’s
• The only limit on the number of offspring he can produce is in the number of available female partners.

Question 9

Female parental investment

Answer 9

• Investment is substantial
• A limited supply of eggs
• Reproductive life of 30 years
• Carries foetus for 39 weeks
• 1 offspring per year
• Gives birth
• Breastfeed

Question 10

Supporting evidence for inter-sexual selection
Clark 1989 Hatfield’s 1990

Answer 10

Sent a male and female psychology students across a university campus. They approached other students individually with this question have been noticing you around campus? I find you very attractive. Would you go to bed with me tonight. Not a single female student agreed to the request, whereas 75% of males did immediately.

Question 11

Supporting evidence for inter-sexual selection
Buss and Schmitt 1993

Answer 11

They asked how many sexual partners people would ideally like over the next 2 years, the next decade and during their lifetime.
On average over the next 2 years
Men would like 8 partners
Women’s 1 partner
On average over a lifetime
18(men)
Between 4 and 5 women

Question 12

Intra sexual selection

Answer 12

What - Compete with members of the same sex for access to members of the opposite sex.
Who- is preferred by males

Question 13

Intrasexual selection and human reproductive behaviour
Sexual dirmorphism

Answer 13

Sexual dimorphism means ‘a difference in form between the sexes’. It is a term that describes the fact that in many (but not all) species of insect, bird mammal, reptile and so on, the males and females look different
In physical competition between males for mates, size matters. Large males have an advantage and are more likely to mate.
Dimporhism suggest that males are competing for the attention of females and females do the choosing.

Question 14

Aggressive behaviour

Answer 14

Many males benefit from behaving aggressively in order to acquire fertile females and protect them from competing males. This leads to the selection of aggressiveness in males.

Question 15

Preference for youth and fertility

Answer 15

• Males are more likely to want to mate with female that are youthful as younger females are more fertile. E.g in humans, men prefer women with a large wait to hip ratio.

Why - As males compete for females which leads to dimorphism

Question 16

Supporting evidence
Miller et al

Answer 16

Miller et al
Compared the earnings of lap dancers who were menstruating naturally with those who were on the pill(which stops ovulation)
At non-fertile times, both dancers earned similar money in tips. However, during the fertile phase, the naturally menstruating dancers earned higher tips. Suggesting that women must somehow advertise their fertility to men, who consider them more attractive at that stage.

Question 17

Supporting evidence
Waynforth and Dunbar 1995

Answer 17

Researched ‘lonely hearts’ columns in american newsapapers and discovered that women tended to describe themselves in terms of physical attractiveness and youth (‘exciting, flirty, curvy’) men on the other hand advertised their resources and intelligence more than women did.

Question 18

Supporting evidence
Cunningham 1986

Answer 18

Investigated what types of females faces found attractive by males. He found that men were most attracted to features usually associated with young children - large eyes, small noses and chins. Some features associated with maturity such as prominent cheekbones and narrow cheeks were also found attractive and were dilated pupils and wide smiles.

Question 19

Self penetration theory

Answer 19

• Altman and Taylor’s 1973 social penetration theory of how relationships develop. It is the gradual process of revealing your inner self to someone else, giving away your deepest thoughts and feelings.
• In romantic relationships, it involves the reciprocal exchange of information between intimate partners.
• As they increasingly disclose more and more, romantic partners penetrate more deeply into each other’s lives and gain a greater understanding of each other.

Doing so means that a relationship has reached a certain stage where such self-disclosure will be welcomed and reciprocated.

Question 20

Breadth and depth of self-disclosure

Answer 20

Depth- how much detail you give
Breadth - how much you reveal
- According to Altman and Taylor, self-disclosure has 2 elements breadth and depth.

As both of these increase, romantic partners become committed to each other.
The breadth of disclosure is narrow because many topics are off-limits early in a relationship. If we reveal too much information too soon, this may threaten the relationship before it can get going.

• However, as the relationship develops, self-disclosure gets deeper, progressively removing more and more layers to reveal our true selves and encompassing a wider range of topics, especially concerning those things that matter to us.

Question 21

Reciprocity of self-disclosure

Answer 21

As Reis and Shaver 1988 point out, for a relationship to develop, as well as an increase in breadth and depth there needs to be a reciprocal element to disclosure.

Once you have decided to disclose something that reveals your true self, hopefully, your partner will respond in a rewarding way, with empathy and also their intimate thoughts and feelings.

So there is a balance of self-disclosure between both partners in a successful romantic relationship, which increases feelings of intimacy and deepens the relationship.

Question 22

Social Penetration Theory (AO3)
Sprecher and Hendrick (2004)

Answer 22

• Correlational analysis
• Heterosexual couples
• Strong correlation between satisfaction and self- disclosure

Question 23

Social Penetration Theory (AO3)
Laurenceau et al (2005)

Answer 23

• Self-report technique- daily writing diary
• Self-disclosure and perception of self- disclosure linked to higher levels of intimacy in long-term married couples
• The reverse was also true

Question 24

Social penetration theory
Culture bias- ethnocentric:
Tang et al. (2013)

Answer 24

Found that men and women in the USA tended to disclose more sexual thoughts and feelings than romantic partners in China; however, the level of relationship satisfaction was high in both cultures.

Question 25

Social penetration theory

Answer 25

Real life application:
Hass and Stafford (1998)

Open and honest self-disclosure was the main way gay men and women maintained and deepened their committed relationships- (57%)

Conclusion:
Self disclosure could improve communication in relationships and increase satisfaction and commitment

Question 26

Factors affecting attraction : Physical attraction
Halo Effect

Answer 26

• To describe how one distinguished feature (physical attractiveness) tends to have a disproportionate influence on our judgements of a person’s attributes for example their personality
• The belief that good-looking people probably have these characteristics makes them even more attractive to us, so we behave positively towards them - a good example of a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Question 27

Supporting evidence
Dion, Berscheid & Walster 1972 - What is beautiful is good

Answer 27

In the study, Ps were asked to rate photos of 3 ppl, ranging from low, medium and high attractiveness. The Ps were to provide ratings for several different categories including personality traits, overall happiness and career success.

F = Attractiveness is positively linked to more socially desirable personalities. Physically attractive ppl were judged to be more intelligent, healthier, sociable and morally upright, compared to unattractive ppl.
- Also, attractive men and females were expected to attain more prestigious occupations
- attractive individuals were not expected to be better parents. Although it is not statically significant, attractive individuals were even given lower ratings as possible parents

Question 28

Matching hypothesis

Answer 28

Walster and Walster suggest that we look for partners, who are similar to us in terms of physical attractiveness (also similar in terms of personality, intelligence etc) instead of choosing the most appealing person

Question 29

Supporting evidence - Factors affecting attraction - Physical attractiveness
1. Walster et al 1966 - The Computer Dance (original study)

Answer 29

• 752 students Ps were rated on physical attractiveness by 4 independent judges, as a measure of social desirability.
• Ps were asked to fill in a questionnaire to rate similarity when it was supposed to be for purposes of computer pairing.
• Instead, Ps were randomly paired, except no man was paired with a taller woman.
• During the dance, Ps were asked to rate their date.

Findings
- It was found that more attractive students were favoured as dates over less attractive students, and physical attractiveness was found to be the most important factor over intelligence and personality. Although it showed that physical attractiveness was a factor, it had no effect on the partner so this study did not support the hypothesis.

Question 30

Supporting evidence - Factors affecting attraction - Physical attractiveness
2. Walster et al 1969 - The computer dance (follow up study)

Answer 30

W and W 1969 allowed Ps to meet beforehand in order to give them a greater chance to interact and think about their ideal qualities in a partner.
Partners that were similar in terms of physical attractiveness expressed the most liking for each other - a finding that supports the matching hypothesis.

Question 31

Supporting evidence for - Factors affecting attraction - Physical attractiveness
3. Silverman 1971

Answer 31

Couples were observed by 4 observers ( 2 F and 2 M) in bars, social events and theatre lobbies. Each observer matched the dating partner of the opposite sex using a 5-point scale.

F - He found that the more similar the level of attractiveness the happier the couples appeared (observed holding hands )
- 60% of similar attractiveness rated as happy
- 46% of moderate similar attractiveness rated as happy
- 32% of less similar attractiveness rates as happy

Question 32

Filter theory

Answer 32

• explains how romantic relationships form and develop.
• It states that a series of different factors progressively reduces the range of available romantic partners to a much smaller pool of possibilities. The filters include social demography, similarity in attributes and complementary

Question 33

Levels of the filter
1. Social demography

Answer 33

Most people will form a relationship with ppl close to them geographically. The key benefit of proximity is accessibility. It doesn’t require much effort to meet ppl who live in the same area

Question 34

Levels of the filter
2. Similarity in attributes

Answer 34

Most people will come in contact with ppl from the same social or cultural background. This can be the case for internal characteristics such as attitudes or personality traits.

Question 35

Levels of the filter
3. Complementary

Answer 35

The ability of romantic partners to meet each others needs. Two partners complement each other when they have traits that the other one lacks.

Question 36

Supporting evidence for Filter Theory
1. Winch 1958

Answer 36

Found that similarity of interests, attitudes and personality traits are very important for couples in the beginning of relationships, and complementary of needs have more impact on long-term relationships.

Question 37

Supporting evidence for Filter Theory
2. Newcomb 1951

Answer 37

He offered Ps free accommodation for a year. They were assigned a roommate, and he found out that a stable relationship developed if roommates had a similar background and similar attitudes toward life.

Question 38

Social Exchange Theory

Answer 38

A theory of how relationships form and develop.
It assumes that romantic partners act out of self-interest in exchanging rewards and costs.
A satisfying and committed relationship is maintained when rewards exceed costs and potential alternatives are less attractive than the current relationship

Question 39

Social Exchange theory
Level 1 - Comparison Level

Answer 39

CL is essentially the amount of reward that you believe you deserve to get. It develops out of our experience of the previous relationship which feeds into our expectations of the current one. Its also influenced by social norms that determine what is widely considered a reward

Question 40

Social Exchange theory
Level 2 - Comparison level for alternatives

Answer 40

provides a wider context for our current relationship. Do we believe we could gain greater rewards and fewer costs from another relationship (or from being on our own? SET predicts that we will stay in our current relationship as long as we believe it is more rewarding than the alternatives.

Question 41

How relationships develop
1. Sampling stage

Answer 41

We explore the rewards and costs of social exchange by experimenting with them in our own relationships (not just romantic ones) or by observing others doing so.

Question 42

How relationships develop
2. Bargaining stage

Answer 42

This marks the beginning of a relationship when romantic partners start exchanging various rewards and costs, negotiating and identifying what is most profitable

Question 43

How relationships develop
3. Commitment stage

Answer 43

As time goes on, the sources of costs and rewards become more predictable and the relationship becomes more stable as rewards increase and costs lessen

Question 44

Equity Theory (fairness)

Answer 44

The perception that partners have about whether the distribution of rewards and costs in the relationship is fair.

According to Elaine Walster and her colleagues, 1978 what matters most with equity is that both partner’s level of profit (rewards - costs) is roughly the same

Developed in response to a significant criticism of the social exchange theory. SET fails to take into account the need most ppl have for equity in a relationship.

Question 45

Consequences of inequity

Answer 45

The under-benefited partner feels:
Dissatisfaction
Unhappiness
Resentment
Anger
Short-term relationship- break up
Long-term relationship- restore equity

Over-benefited partner feels:
Guilt
Shame
Discomfort

Question 46

Supporting evidence for the equity theory
1. Utne et al 1984

Answer 46

used self-report scales to measure equity and satisfaction in recently married couples.

Sample: The 118 Ps were aged between 16 and 45 and had been together for 2 yrs or more before marrying.

F: Partners who rated their relationship as more equitable were also more satisfied with them

Question 47

Supporting evidence for the equity theory
2. Van Yperen and Buunk 1990

Answer 47

Longtudinal study used 259 couples recruited by an ad in a local paper.
- 86% were married
- 14% were cohabitating
one year later the couples were asked about satisfaction in their relationship
F: those who felt their relationship was equitable at stage 1 were the most satisfied
and the under-benefited were least satisfied

Question 48

Supporting evidence for the equity theory
3. Stafford and Canary (2006)

Answer 48

Studied over 200 married couples, they completed questionnaires on relationship equity and satisfaction.
Ps were also asked questions about the ways they maintained their relationships, such as by dividing chores, communicating positively and showing affection for one another.

Findings:
Partners who perceived their relationships as fair and balance, were the most satisfied. Followed by spouses who over-benefitted from the relationships. Those who under-benefitted showed lowest levels of satisfaction

Question 49

1. Equity theory has ignored individual differences and how this affects the quality of our relationships. Not all partners are concerned about achieving equity
   Hussman et al (1987)

Answer 49

• Found that some people
  are less sensitive to equity than others.Benevolents are prepared to contribute
  more to the relationship than they get out
• Entitleds believe they deserve to be over-benefitted and accept this without feeling distressed or guilty
• The equity theory cannot explain why some ppl are less sensitive to equity than others, for this reason it is a limited theory of romantic relationships as it is evident that equity is not universal.

Question 50

2. The equity theory has ignored other factors which are significant in the maintenance/ breakdown of relationships.
   Berg and McQuinn (1986)

Answer 50

-conducted a longitudinal study on 38 dating couples. They discovered that a high level of self-disclosure and perceived equity in the beginning of the
relationships was a strong predictor that a couple would stay in their relationship,
and low equity in the beginning was a reliable predictor of a break-up.

• These findings are a limitation of the equity theory it fails to support its predictions
  that satisfying relationships become equitable over time.

Question 51

3. The equity theory is beta gender bias, it ignores the differences between males
   and females and their perception of relationship fairness. Sprecher (1992)

Answer 51

found that women
tend to be more disturbed when
under-benefitting from relationships, and feel more guilt when over-benefitting. DeMaris et al. (1998) suggest that women are more focused on relationships, and so are more
sensitive to injustices.

These results indicate clear gender differences between males and females and highlight the importance of conducting
research into males and females separately, to avoid gender bias. Therefore, the equity theory is scientifically misleading and limits our understanding of the role of fairness in romantic relationships.

Question 52

4. The equity theory presumes the need for equity in relationships is universal across all cultures. It ignores cultural variation and is therefore culturally biased.

Answer 52

The supporting evidence and
assumptions made are based on
western/ individualistic ideas.

Aumer-Ryan et al. (2007) show that the concept of equity is more important in Western cultures than non-Western cultures. They found that both men and women from
non-Western (collectivist) cultures claimed to be most satisfied with their relationships when they were over-benefitting from it, not when the relationships were fair.

This makes the equity theory limited because it cannot account for culturally differences and the perception of equity and relationship satisfaction.

Question 53

5. Another limitation is that the equity theory is nomothetic,

Answer 53

it offers a universal explanation for the maintenance of romantic relationships. Clark and Mills (2011) concluded that equity is hard to assess in loving relationships, it is unquantifiable. It is much
easier to quantify in non-romantic relationships.

Therefore an idiographic approach may be more
appropriate to investigate romantic relationships as
they would focus on the experiences of individuals,
which differ between couples

Question 54

Investment Model

Answer 54

The resources associated with a romantic relationship which partners would lose if theiir relationship were to end

Question 55

Investment Model
Commitment has 3 factors
1. Satisfaction (comparison level)

Answer 55

A satisfying relationship is judged by comparing the rewards and costs and is seen to be profitable. Each partner is generally satisfied if they are getting more out of a relationship than they expect based on previous experiences and social norms

Question 56

Investment Model
Commitment has 3 factors
2. Comparison with alternatives

Answer 56

results in romantic partners asking themselves “could my needs be better met outside my current relationship or are my alternatives more rewarding and less costly or the possibility of having no romantic relationship

Question 57

Investment Model
Commitment has 3 factors
3. Investment

According to Rusbalt et al there are 2 major types of investment

Answer 57

Intrinsic investment - are any resources we put directly into a relationship. They can be tangible things such as money and possessions. They can also be intangible such as energy, emotion and self disclosure

Extrinsic investments - are resources that previously did not feature in the relationships, but are now closely associated with it. Tangibles include possessions bought together eg car, mutual friends and children. An intangible example would be shared memories.

If partners in a relationship experience high levels of satisfaction (because they are getting many rewards with few costs) and the alternatives are less attractive and the sizes of their investments are increasing, then we can confidently predicted that partners will be commited to the relationship

Question 58

Maintenance mechanism behaviour (how commitment is expressed)

Answer 58

Enduring partners put their partner’s interests first (willingness to scarifice), and forgive them for serious transgressions (forgiveness).

There is also a cognitive element to relationship maintenance and repair. Committed partners think about each other and potential alternatives in specfic (and predictable) ways. They are unrealistically positive about their partner (positive illusions) and negative about tempting alternatives and other ppl’s relationship much more than less committed partners.

Question 59

Supporting evidence for Investment model
Le and Agnew 2003

Answer 59

Meta analysis of 52 studies and over 11,000 Ps. 54% females and 46% males. Studies were included from 5 countries. US, UK, Netherlands, Isreal and Taiwan. Measure of satisfaction, quality of alternatives and investments were correlated with commitment to a romantic relationship. They also found that there was a stronger correlation between satisfaction and commitment.

Question 60

The investment model provides a
plausible explanation for why people stay
in abusive relationships.

Answer 60

Rusbult and Maltz, found that women were more
likely to return to an abusive partner if they felt they had invested in the relationship and they didn’t have any appealing alternatives.
These findings are predicted by the investment model which claims that, if a partner feels the investment they made into a relationship will be lost if they leave, they are more likely to stay in a relationship even when the costs are high (such as physical or emotional abuse) and rewards are few.

Question 61

The investment model offers a universal
explanation of romantic relationships which
can be applied to other cultures.

Answer 61

Le and Agnew’s (2003) meta-analysis of 52 studies
found support for the Investment Model
across individualist and collectivist cultures,
such as in the USA (individualist culture) and in
Taiwan (collectivist culture).

This may suggest that the human need for investment and commitment to relationships developed
through the process of natural selection to
help people survive and reproduce. For example, parents who are committed to their relationship and invest in it will have a higher chance of ensuring their children’s survival

Question 62

Most evidence for the Investment Model
comes from interviews and questionnaires,
which are known to be subjective and
unreliable.

Answer 62

However, other researchers argue that,
because satisfaction, investment and
commitment are subjective values and
depend on people’s perception, using
self-report techniques is an appropriate way
to test the Investment Model.

Therefore, data obtained through
self-report techniques may provide a more
realistic picture of reasons for relationship
satisfaction and how it is related to
investment and commitment, therefore
making Investment Model more valid.

Question 63

There are methodological issues with the
supporting evidence for the investment
model.

Answer 63

Most of the research evidence is correlational
and uses self-report techniques to investigate
the role of investments in committed romantic
relationships. Psychologists are unable to
conclude that investment causes commitment
in relationships or commitment occurs
because of investments.

The use of correlational evidence limits the predictive
validity of the model, as it fails to predict which types of investment and how much investment will lead to a long-term commitment to a relationship. Additionally, although using self-report techniques is an appropriate way to test the Investment Model, as the key concepts in the model are subjective, there are issues with the validity of the answers provided by Ps. This potentially limits the validity of the model

Question 64

3 reasons for breaking up

Answer 64

• Pre-existing doom - incompatible
• Mechanical failure
• Sudden death - cheating

Question 65

Theories of Romantic relationship: Duck’s Phase Model

Answer 65

Steve Duck 2007 proposed a phase model of relationship breakdown. He argued that the ending of a relationship is not a one-off event but a process that takes time and goes through 4 stages. The road to break up begins once a partner realises that they are dissatisfied with the relationship and distressed about the way things are going

Question 66

Duck’s Phase Model
Intra - Psychic phase

“i can’t stand this anymore” indicating a determination that something has to change

Answer 66

The focus of this phase is on cognitive processing occurring within the individual. The dissatisfied partner worries about the reasons for his or her dissatisfaction, centring mostly on their partner’s shortcomings. They weigh up the pros and cons of the relationship and evaluate these against the alternatives (including being alone). They begin to make plans for the future.

Question 67

Duck’s Phase Model
Dyadic phase

They eventually come to the conclusion, ‘i would be justified in withdrawing’.

Answer 67

There is a series of confrontations in which the relationship is discussed and dissatisfactions are aired. These are characterised by anxiety, hostility and probably complaints about lack of equity, resentment over imbalanced roles and a rethinking of the commitment that kept the partners together.

There are 2 possible outcomes - a determination to continue breaking up the relationship, or a renewed desire to repair it. But if the rescue attempts fail, another threshold is reached.

Ironically, self-disclosure may become deeper and more frequent in this phase as partners express thoughts and feelings they had been withholding in the intra-psychic phase.

Question 68

Duck’s Phase Model
Social phase

The dissatisfied partner concludes ,’i mean it.’

Answer 68

The focus is now on wider processes involving the couple’s social networks. Some friends provide reinforcement and reassurance or others will place balme on one partner or the other. Some may hasten the end of a relationship by providing previously secret information. Still others may pitch in and try to help repair the relationship. This is usually the point of no return - the break up takes on a momentum driven by social forces

Question 69

Duck’s Phase Model
Grave dressing phase
‘It’s now inevitable’.

Answer 69

Once the relationship is dead, the time comes to bury it, by ‘spinning’ a favourable story about the breakdown for public consumption. This allows the partners to save face and maintain a positive reputation, usually at the expense of the other partner, showing them in a bad light.
Gossip plays an important role in this phase.

La Gaipa 1982 - it is crucial that each partner tries to retain some ‘social credit’ by blaming circumstances, your partner or other people, but themselves

Grave dressing also involves creating a personal story you can live with, which may differ from the public one. The dissatisfied partner finally reaches the threshold,’time to get a new life’.

Question 70

Tashiro and Frazier (2003)

Answer 70

surveyed undergraduates who had recently broken up with a romantic partner. They typically reported that they had not only experienced emotional distress, but also personal growth.

These students reported that breaking up with their partner had given them new insights into themselves and a clearer idea about future partners.

Through grave-dressing and resurrection processes they were able to put the original relationship to rest and get on with their lives.

Question 71

Dickson (1995)

Answer 71

found that while friends and relatives tend to see teenagers’ break-ups as less serious and wouldn’t put much effort into reconciling partners, the ending of relationships by older couples is seen as more distressing and those close to the couple put more effort into bringing them back together.

Question 72

Rollie and Duck (2006)

Answer 72

modified the original model. They added a 5th phase- resurrection phase. They also made it clear that progression from one stage to another is not inevitable, it is possible to return to an earlier point in the process in any phase. The modified model acknowledges that breakdown’s are not linear, they are complex and uncertain. This furthers our understanding of the breakdown process and could possibly be used to in relationship counselling to reverse the process.

Question 73

A strength of the model is that it not only helps us to identify and understand the stages of relationships breakdown but also suggests various ways of reversing it.

Answer 73

The model is used in couples’ counselling; couples may be advised to use different strategies depending on the phase they are currently in.

For example, for a person in the intra-psychic phase it may be more useful to shift their attention to the positive aspects of their partner’s personality, while for a couple in the dyadic phase communication about dissatisfaction and ways to balance relationships is crucial.

The model helps us to understand and identify the stages of relationship breakdown and suggest ways of reversing it

Question 74

However, there are methodological issues with the reliance on retrospective research.

Answer 74

Using questionnaires or interviews to ask participants about the break-up some time after it happened means that they may not accurately recall the events and their recollection may be unreliable.

However, most researchers would argue that this is a limitation of using retrospective self report techniques it is the most appropriate way to investigate breakdown process. It is almost impossible to investigate relationship breakdown at the beginning when problems first appears as the presence of a research and/ or their involvement could make things worse and even hasten the end of the relationship that may have been otherwise rescued.

This weakens the model’s ability to present an accurate picture of relationship breakdown and for this reason Duck’s model has ignored the early part of the process; this means tha his theory is an incomplete description of how relationships end.

Question 75

A limitation of Duck’s model is that it may not be applicable to all types of romantic relationship.

Answer 75

Dickson (1995) found that while friends and relatives tend to see teenagers’ break-ups as less serious and wouldn’t put much effort into reconciling partners, the ending of relationships by older couples is seen as more distressing and those close to the couple put more effort into bringing them back together.

This shows that Duck’s model won’t necessarily apply to all couples, and therefore suggests that the model is unable to accurately predict breakdown in different types of relationship

Question 76

Duck’s model is culturally biased as it ignores cultural variation in relationship breakdown.

Answer 76

Most of the research supporting the model is based on relationships from individualist cultures, where ending the relationships is a voluntary choice, and separation and divorce are easily obtainable and do not carry stigma. However, this may not be the case in collectivist cultures, where relationships are sometimes arranged by wider family members, and characterised by greater family involvement.

This makes the relationship difficult to end, which means that the break-up process will not follow the phases proposed by Duck. As a result, Duck’s model is culturally biased as it assumes that break-up process is universal, which is clearly not the case.

Question 77

Self -disclosure

Answer 77

• Revealing personal information about yourself.
• Romantic partners reveal more about their true selves as their relationship develops. These self -disclosures about one’s deepest thoughts and feelings can strenghten a romantic bond when used appropriately

Question 78

Absence of gating

Answer 78

Face to Face relationships often fall to form because of obstacles such as facial disfigurements that some ppl might find off-putting. These barriers or ‘gates’ are absent in the virtual world allowing relationships to begin when they might not offline.

Question 79

Reduced cues theory
Lee Sproull and Sara Kiesler 1986

Answer 79

virtual relationships are less effective than Ftf ones because they lack many of the cues we normally depend on in FtF interactions.

These include nonverbal cues such as our physical appearance and especially cues to our emotional state eg. facial expressions, tone of voice

This reduces a person’s sense of individual identity in virtual relationships (de-individuation), which in turn leads to disinhibition. Many people then feel freer to communicate in blunt and even aggressive ways. Ppl are unlikely to want to express their real thoughts and feelings to someone who is so impersonal

Question 80

The hyperpersonal model
Joseph Walther 1996, 2011

Answer 80

• argues that virtual relationships can be more personal and involve greater self -disclosure than FtF ones. This is because virtual relationships can develop very quickly as self-disclosure happens earlier, and once established they are more intense and intimate.

There are 2 key features of hypersonal self-disclosure in virtual relationships.
1. The sender of a message has greater control over what to disclose and the cues they send than they would in an FtF situation. This is selective self-presentation. The sender manipulates their self-image to present themselves in an idealised way. To achieve this, self-disclosure can be both intensely truthful (hyperhonest) and/or intensely false (hyperdishonest)

2. the receiver gains a positive impression of the sender, they may give feedback that reinforces the sender’s selective self-presentation

Question 81

Another factor that promotes online self-disclosure and makes virtual relationships hyperpersonal is anonymity. John Bargh et al 2002

Answer 81

point out that the outcome of this is like the strangers on a train effect in FtF relationships. When you’re aware that other ppl do not know your identity, you feel less accountable for your behaviour. So you may well disclose more about yourself to a stranger than to even your most intimate partner.

Question 82

Effects of absence of gating in virtual relationships
What is a gate?
Katelyn Mckenna and John Bargh 199
Give Examples

Answer 82

a gate is any obstacle to forming a relationship.
FtF interaction is gated, in that it involves many features that can interfere with the early development of a relationship .
Examples of gates include physical unattractiveness, facial disfigurement, a stammer and social anxiety (shyness, blushing, etc.)

Question 83

Benefits and drawbacks - effects of absence of gating in virtual relationships

Answer 83

A key feature of virtual relationship is that most of these gates are absent. Absence of gating works by refocusing attention on self-disclosure and away from superficial and distracting features.

A benefit of gates being absent is that the individual is freed to be more like their ‘true selves’ (more so than in FtF interactions)

On the other hand, there is a scope for people to create untrue identities and deceive ppl in ways that the could never manage in FTF.

Question 84

Reduced Cues Theory supporting evidence
Point - The reduced cues suggests that virtual relationships are difficult to form in the absence of cues and are less effective than F2F ones,
however the theory is unable to explain the
success of online relationships.
1. Baker and Oswald (2010)
2. Walther and Tidwel (1995)

Answer 84

Baker and Oswald (2010)
Virtual relationships are particularly helpful for shy people

Walther and Tidwel (1995)
Cues not absent they are difference for CMC relationships
Timing and style of message used instead
Emojis, emoticons and Acrostics
(LOL/ LMAO)

For this reason the reduced cue theory is a limited explanation as it ignores the
fact that online relationships can be just as
personal and successful as F2F and it is possible
to express emotional states online.

The increase in dating apps/ online dating platforms
demonstrate that there is a market for online
dating which companies are willing to capitalise
on; we can presume that there is some success
in online dating which the reduced cues theory
has not acknowledged.

Question 85

Virtual Relationships in Social Media: Hyperpersonal Model

Point - The hyperrsonal model predicts that people are motivated to self-disclosure
in CMC in ways which are sometimes hyperhonest and sometimes hyperdishonest.
Whitty and Joinson (2009)

Answer 85

found that self-disclosure in CMC can be hyperhonest or hyperdishonet. Questions asked online tend to be very direct, probing and intimate.

These findings support a central assertion of
the model, which is that the way we self-disclose in CMC relationships is designed to present ourselves in an exaggeratedly positive light which aids relationship formation.

Question 86

Consequence- absence of gating
McKenna and Bargh (2000)

Answer 86

Looked at CMC use by lonely and socially
anxious people. They were able to express
their true selves more than in FtF situations.
70% of online relationships survived more
than 2 years. This is higher than offline
relationships

Question 87

Consequence- absence of gating
Rosenfeld and Thomas (2012)

Answer 87

They asked 207 male and female participants
to complete a questionnaire, scoring their
answers in terms of shyness, internet use and
perception of the quality of their friendships.

Findings:Those people who scored highly on shyness
and internet use perceived the quality of their
friendships as high; this correlation was absent
for people with low shyness scores.

Conclusion: Online communication helps people to
overcome their shyness, so the quality of their
face-to-face communication also improves.

Question 88

McKenna et al. (2002) found that:

Answer 88

Women tended to rate their relationships
formed online as more intimate, and
valued self-disclosure, especially in
regards to emotion, more highly than
men.

Men, on the other hand, preferred
activities-based (such as common
interests in motorsports) disclosure, and
rated their online relationships as less
close than face-to-face ones.

Question 89

Nakanishi (1986)

Answer 89

found that, in contrast to American culture, women
in Japan preferred lower levels of self-disclosure in close relationships.

Question 90

Research into virtual relationships is based
on the experiences of mainly Western,
technologically developed cultures.

Answer 90

Internet technology is not readily available in some countries, so the conclusions about the development and effects of virtual communication on romantic relationships cannot be applied to them.In addition, attitudes to self-disclosure are different in different cultures. For example, Nakanishi (1986) found that, in
contrast to American culture, women in Japan preferred lower levels of self-disclosure in close relationships.

This demonstrates that the level of self-disclosure depends on cultural norms, and may affect the communication styles
online. This lowers the validity of research into virtual relationships, limiting the range of relationships it explains.

Question 91

There are also important gender
differences in virtual relationships.

Answer 91

McKenna et al. (2002) found that women tended to rate their relationships formed online as more
intimate, and valued self-disclosure, especially in regards to emotion, more highly than men. Men, on the other hand, preferred activities-based (such as
common interests in motorsports) disclosure and rated their online relationships as less close than
face-to-face ones.

This suggests that research into online relationships may show alpha bias, as it assumes that males’
and females’ experiences in virtual relationships are different.

However, it could be that male and female
experiences of virtual relationships are similar and there are methodological issues with the research in this area that exaggerate the differences (e.g. the choice of interview/questionnaires as a research
tool).

Question 92

For a more complete explanation of
CMC relationships any theory must
take into consideration that people
are involved in both online and offline
relationships every day; it’s not an
either/or situation. Offline
relationships tend to influence what
and how we choose to disclose
online, and vice versa.

Answer 92

There are fewer differences between online and
face to face relationships than explanations seem to suggest. Research examining online relationships often fails to take into account the effect of these
relationships on a person’s offline interactions, and vice versa.

Most of the research examining virtual relationships was conducted in the late 1990s and early 2000s and has low temporal validity. As technology is changing rapidly, so is the nature of online relationships; therefore, psychological research in this area risks becoming outdated by the time it is published.

Question 93

Parasocial relationships

Answer 93

They are one-sided unreciprocated relationships usually with a celebrity, on which the fan spends a lot of emotional energy, commitment and time

Question 94

Level of parasocial relationships
Scale used by Maltby et al (2006) in large scale study to identify the three levels of Parasocial relationships

1. Entertainment Social

Answer 94

• least intense level of celebrity worship
  At this level, celebrities are viewed as sources of entertainment and fuel for social interaction.

David Giles 2002 found parasocial relationships
were a fruitful source of gossip in the office

Question 95

Level of parasocial relationships
2. Intense-personal

Answer 95

Intermediate level which reflects a greater personal involvement in a parasocial relationship with a celebrity

Question 96

Level of parasocial relationships
3. Borderline pathological

Answer 96

The strongest level of celebrity worship -featuring uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviours. These might include spending a large sum of money on a celebrity-related object or being willing to perform an illegal act cause the celebrity said so.

Question 97

Absorption and addiction model
Absorption

Answer 97

seeking fulfilment in celebrity worship motivates an individual to focus their attention on the celebrity causing them to be preoccupied with the celebrity and identify with them

Question 98

Absorption and addiction model
Addiction

Answer 98

The individual needs to increase their dose in order to gain satisfaction. This may lead to more extreme behaviours and delusional thinking

Question 99

Parasocial relationships
Attachment theory explanation

Answer 99

There is a tendency to form parasocial relationships in adolescence and adulthood because of attachment difficulties in early childhood. Bowlby’s attachment theory suggests such early difficulties may lead to emotional troubles later in life.

Insecure-resistant types are most likely to form parasocial relationships as adults. This is because they seek to have unfulfilled needs met, but in a relationship that is not accompanied by the threat of rejection, break up and disappointment that real-life relationships bring.

Insecure avoidant types on the other hand prefer to avoid the pain and rejection of relationships altogether, whether they be social or parasocial

Question 100

Supporting evidence
McCutcheon (2003)
Houran et al (2005)

Answer 100

McCutcheon (2003) found that, of 600Ps
20% fell into the first category (entertainment)
10% the second (intense personal)
1% the third (borderline pathological)

Houran et al (2005) called category three erotomania

Question 101

McCutcheon (2002) proposed the Absorption-Addiction Model to explain parasocial relationships.

Answer 101

She suggests that people engage in celebrity worship to compensate for some deficiencies in their life, such as difficulty forming intimate relationships, poor psychological adjustment and lack of identity.

Forming parasocial relationships with a celebrity allows them to achieve the fulfilment they lack in everyday life and adds a sense of purpose and excitement.

Question 102

Maltby et al (2005)

Answer 102

measured the relation between celebrity worship and body image in teenagers.

They found that teenage girls who were at the intense-personal level of celebrity worship tended to have a poor body image, especially if they particularly admired a celebrity’s physical appearance.

Question 103

Schiappa et al. (2007)

Answer 103

found a significant positive correlation between the amount of TV participants watched, the degree to which they perceived a TV character as ‘real’ and the level of their parasocial relationship.

Question 104

Greenwood and Long (2009)

Answer 104

found some evidence that people may develop celebrity worships as a way of dealing with a recent loss or loneliness

Question 105

Most research into celebrity worship/parasocial relationships is correlational.

Answer 105

This means that cause and effect cannot be clearly established, lowering the scientific explanatory power.

For example, while a significant correlation was found between poor body image and intensive celebrity worship in teenage girls (Maltby et al., 2005), this does not mean, however, that intense celebrity worship causes poor body image. It may as well be that girls who already have a poor body image tend to engage in a more intensive level of parasocial relationships to enhance their self-esteem.

However, other research Chory-Assad and Yanen, 2005, failed to find any significant correlation between intensity of loneliness and intensity of a parasocial relationship, so the evidence is not conclusive.

Question 106

Another weakness of studies into parasocial relationships is that they rely heavily on self-report methods, such as interviews and questionnaires.

Answer 106

These methods may not reflect the true picture, as participants may want to answer in a way that reflects them in better light (social desirability bias) and may not respond truthfully to the questions.

This means that the reasons for developing parasocial relationships may be different from the ones uncovered by research, which lowers the validity of these explanations, making them less applicable to real life.

Question 107

Parasocial relationships
Attachment theory explanation
Supporting evidence
1. Mcann (2001)
2. Cole and Leets (1999)
3. Kienlen et al. (1997

Answer 107

Mcann (2001)
Stalking behaviour in adolescence and adulthood related to insecure-attachment patterns

Cole and Leets (1999) investigated parasocial relationships that adolescents developed with TV personalities, and found that teenagers with insecure-resistant attachment types were more likely to develop

Kienlen et al. (1997) supported the idea that disturbed attachment in childhood may lead to the development of borderline-pathological level of parasocial relationships.
F= They investigated the experiences of stalkers and found that 63% of their participants experienced a loss of a caregiver in early childhood while 50% experienced emotional and physical abuse.

Question 108

Opposing evidence
There is a lack of support for attachment theory explanations.

Answer 108

McCutcheon et al. (2006) examined the correlation between attachment type and celebrity worship levels using 229 participants, and found no link between insecure-resistant attachment and more intense levels of parasocial relationships. This contradicts the claim made by attachment theory explanations and suggests that there is no link between attachment type and parasocial relationships.

McCutcheon et al. Findings:
Found that insecure attachment types more likely to condone celebrity stalking and were no more likely to form parasocial relationships than Ps with secure attachments

Question 109

The Absorption-Addiction Model is better suited to describing levels of celebrity worship that explain how people develop these attitudes.

Answer 109

This model attempts to establish universal principles of behaviour (nomothetic approach) and as such misses out on deep insight into the reasons for behaviour.
An idiographic approach, looking into particular instances of parasocial relationships, may be better suited to the reasons for why people develop them

Question 110

Despite some weaknesses, research into celebrity worship seems to be describing a universal phenomenon.

Answer 110

For example, Schmid and Klimmt (2011) studied levels of parasocial relationships with characters from the Harry Potter books in different cultures, and found similar levels of worship in Germany (individualist culture) and Mexico (collectivist culture). This suggests that the absorption-addiction model is universally applicable.