relationships

Question 1

Sexual selection AO1

Answer 1

Darwin suggest partner preferences are driven by sexual selection

males and females choose their partners in order to maximise reproductive success

physical characteristics show a sign of genetic fitness that increase reproductive success, are passed on and may become exaggerated over later generations of offspring

if females prefer muscular men then being muscular will increase a male’s chance of being chosen as a mate, therefore this gene will be passed on as a sexually selected one and over generations males evolve to become more muscular

Other characteristics such as aggressiveness are adaptive as they provide an advantage for a male over competition in reproductive rights. Aggressive characteristics that allow an animal to reproduce are then passed onto offspring

Question 2

Anisogamy

Answer 2

Males and females are said to have different partner preferences and human reproductive behaviour

Question 3

characteristics of male gametes

Answer 3

created in vast numbers from puberty to old age
small
mobile
do not require a lot of energy to produce
not sure of paternity

Question 4

characteristics in female gametes

Answer 4

relatively large
produced once a month
fertile for only around 25 years
require a significant amount of energy
sure of maternity

Question 5

two types of sexual selection

Answer 5

inter-sexual selection

intra sexual selection

Question 6

male reproductive behaviour

Answer 6

Promiscuous
Short term mating with multiple fertile females

Question 7

female reproductive behaviour

Answer 7

Long term mating
Choosy

Question 8

intra-sexual selection

Answer 8

within the sex (males)

male prefer quantity over quality
no shortage of fertile men but as a fertile female is a ‘rare resource’ males must compete with one another to reproduce

winner of the competition gets to reproduce and passes on their genes that contributed to their victory

in a physical competition between males, size matters

Larger males have an advantage and are more likely to mate, whereas females do not have to compete to reproduce and therefore can explain why women are often shorter

a males best reproductive behaviour strategy would be to mate with as many fertile females as possible due to lack of DNA testing

prefer partners with signs of fertility
such as health, youth and greater waist to hip ratio (child bearing hips) and rosy cheeks

Question 9

inter-sexual selection

Answer 9

between the sexes

females prefer quality over quantity as Ova are rare and require more energy to produce

Females invest more time and commitment before, during and after the birth of offspring

look for a mate who is genetically fit but who also has resources in order to provide for the offspring and maximise their chances of passing on the genes to later generations

female may practice courtship rituals (go on dates) to help select the best males from
those available, as males would have to invest time, effort and resources in them, therefore
increasing the chances that the male will not desert her after birth

female preference is what determines the features passed onto offspring

Question 10

Evaluation for Evolutionary Explanations for Partner Preferences AO3 RTS (Buss)

Answer 10

-RTS by Buss (1989)
-He carried out a survey on over 10,000 participants from 33
countries and asked questions relating to a variety of attributes that
are important in partner preferences
-He found that males prefer youthful,
physically attractive females
-whereas females prefer resources such as good finances ambitious males
-These findings reflect sex differences in sexual selection
-therefore supporting predictions of partner preferences made by the evolutionary explanation

Question 11

Evaluation for Evolutionary Explanations for Partner Preferences AO3 RTS (Clarke)

Answer 11

-RTS sex differences in human reproductive behaviour was
conducted by Clarke and Hatfield (1989)
-They had males and females approach members of the opposite sex and asked the question, “Will you have sex with me?”
-He found that 75% of males said yes to the female whereas 0% of females agreed to have sex with the male
-This therefore supports the differences in human reproductive
behaviour of males as females as it demonstrates the idea that
-females are choosy and males are promiscuous

Question 12

Evaluation for Evolutionary Explanations for Partner Preferences AO3 limitation (determinism)

Answer 12

-biological determinism
-This is because the theory states that the individual is controlled
by internal factors
-such as their genes that will inevitably control their choice of partner and reproductive behaviour
-Therefore, it neglects the role of free will and choice that individuals have
-could leave individuals feeling as if they have no control over their
partner preferences
-thus limiting the evolutionary theory as an explanation of males and
female partner preferences

Question 13

What are the factors affecting attraction

Answer 13

self-disclosure
physical attractiveness
filter theory

Question 14

self disclosure AO1

Answer 14

-revealing personal information about yourself
-share our likes and dislikes and our interests and attitudes
-allows us to understand our partner better
-Self-disclosure plays a vital role in a relationship beyond initial attraction

Question 15

Social penetration theory

Answer 15

-concept on how relationships develop
-gradual process of revealing yourself to someone and revealing inner self, feelings and deep secrets
-hopefully the partner will
respond in a way that is rewarding and shows understanding (Reciprocity)
-balance of self-disclosure increases
the feelings of intimacy and deepens the relationship which increases attraction
-the breadth and depth of self-disclosure is important
-too much deep can threaten the relationships development

Question 16

Self disclosure AO3 RTS

Answer 16

-RTS by Sprecher and Hendrick
-They studied heterosexual dating couples and found strong correlations between several measures of satisfaction and self-disclosure
-(both theirs and their partner’s)
-Men and women who used self-disclosure and those who believed their partners did likewise (reciprocation) were more satisfied
with and committed to their romantic relationships
-Therefore, increasing the validity of self-disclosure as a factor affecting attraction in romantic relationships

Question 17

Self disclosure AO3 RTS limitation

Answer 17

-correlational
-so only a relationship is shown between self-disclosure and levels of
attraction
-not a cause and effect
-There is likely to be a number of other factors impacting how
successful the romantic relationship is
-e.g. physical attractiveness and similarity in attitudes
-Therefore limiting the support and internal validity of the research into self-disclosure as a factor
affecting attraction in romantic relationships
-as we cannot establish cause and effect

Question 18

Self disclosure AO3 RTS limitation

Answer 18

-research is often carried out using self reports (questionnaires and interviews)
-which could lead to social desirability bias
-ppts may lie about the amount of information they have disclosed to a partner
-how satisfied they are in their relationship to make themselves appear in a better light
-This therefore weakens the internal validity of research into self disclosure as a factor affecting attraction in romantic
relationships

Question 19

Physical attractiveness AO1

Answer 19

-people with symmetrical faces are rated as more attractive
-an honest signal of genetic fitness as it is difficult to fake facial symmetry
-Women with neotenous seen
as more attractive because they trigger a protective and caring instinct which is a valuable resource for
females wanting to reproduce
-physically attractive people are consistently rated kind,
strong, sociable and successful compared to unattractive people (halo effect)
-we behave positively towards them (self-fulfilling prophecy)
-The matching hypothesis states people realise at a young age that not everybody can form relationships with the most attractive people, so it is important to evaluate their own
attractiveness and from this, partners which are the most similar to their own level of attractiveness

Question 20

physical attractiveness: symmetry AO1

Answer 20

-people with symmetrical faces are rated as more attractive
-an honest signal of genetic fitness as it is difficult to fake facial symmetry

Question 21

physical attractiveness: neonatus AO1

Answer 21

Women with neotenous seen
as more attractive because they trigger a protective and caring instinct which is a valuable resource for
females wanting to reproduce

Question 22

physical attractiveness: halo effect AO1

Answer 22

-physically attractive people are consistently rated kind,
strong, sociable and successful compared to unattractive people

Question 23

physical attractiveness: self fulfilling prophecy AO1

Answer 23

belief that good looking people probably also have positive characteristics makes them even more attractive to us, so we behave positively towards them

Question 24

physical attractiveness: matching hypothesis AO1

Answer 24

The matching hypothesis states people realise at a young age that not everybody can form relationships with the most attractive people, so it is important to evaluate their own
attractiveness and from this, partners which are the most similar to their own level of attractiveness

Question 25

Physical attractiveness: AO3 RTC

Answer 25

-Taylor et al
-They studied the activity logs of a popular dating site
-This was a real-life test of the matching hypothesis because is
measured actual date choices and not just preferences
-Online daters sought meetings with potential partners who were more physically attractive than them
-This contradicts the matching hypothesis as people did not consider their own level of attractiveness when making decisions
-therefore lowering the validity of the theory

Question 26

Physical attractiveness: AO3 RTS limitations

Answer 26

-self reports (questionnaires and interviews)
-social desirability bias
-Participants may lie about how important physical attractiveness is in a potential
partner for fear of seeming shallow
-Therefore, this weakens the overall support of physical
attractiveness as a factor affecting attraction in romantic relationships

Question 27

Physical attractiveness: AO3 strength (generalisation)

Answer 27

-many similarities across cultures when studying physical attractiveness
-Large eyes, prominent cheekbones, small nose and high eyebrows were rated attractive by Hispanic and Asian males as the features display genetic fitness (sexual
selection)
-Furthermore, American and Korean students judged physically attractive people to be more trustworthy, friendly and mature
-This therefore means it is possible to generalise findings from western cultures to non-western cultures as they have displayed similarities when investigating physical
attractiveness

Question 28

filter theory AO1

Answer 28

-when selecting from a range of people who are potentially available to them (‘a
field of availables’)
-however not all available partners are desirable to us
-therefore people will use three ‘filters’ to narrow down the choice to people they believe will produce the best sustainable relationship
-Each filter assumes a greater or lesser importance at different stages in a relationship

Question 29

what are the 3 level of filters

Answer 29

1.Social demography
2.Similarity in attitudes
3.Complementarity

Question 30

1st. level of filter

Answer 30

-social demography
-These demographics include ‘religion, ethnic group, level of education, geographical location and social classes’
-Such factors filter out a large number of available partners
-There is a big range of potential partners
-but the realistic field
is much narrower as we are restricted by our social circumstances
-You will probably have a fair bit in common with someone who shares the same religious beliefs
-A key factor is proximity, we are more likely to form romantic relationships with those available close to us (same school/university/town)
-Any available that are ‘too different’ e.g. live too far away or a different social class will be discounted as a potential partner

Question 31

2nd level of filter

Answer 31

-similarity in attitudes
-‘field of availables’ will probably have more similar cultural and social characteristics in common
-‘Similarity of attitudes’ was important in the development
of romantic relationships
-but only for couples who had been in a relationship for less than 18 months
-There is a need for partners in the early stages of the relationship to agree on basic values and things that matter to them
-This encourages greater and deeper communication and promotes self-disclosure
-If similarity does not exist e.g. partners have little in common the relationship will often fizzle out

Question 32

3rd level of filter

Answer 32

-complementarity
-‘meet each other’s needs’
-Two partners complement each other when they have traits that the other lacks
-e.g. one partner might enjoy making the other laugh whereas the other partner might like being made to laugh
-researchers found that the need for complementarity was more important for the
long-term couples
-In other words, at a later stage of the relationship opposites attract
-Complementarity is
important as it gives two romantic partners the feeling that together they form a whole and this adds depth to their
relationship

Question 33

Filter theory AO3 strength (longitudinal)

Answer 33

-longitudinal study
-Both partners in dating couples completed questionnaires to assess two factors: similarity in attitudes and complementarity of
needs 7 months apart
-It was found that closeness in a relationship was associated with similarity of values but only for couples who had been together for less than 18 months
-For couples in longer relationships complementarity of needs predicted closeness
-This supports filter theory as it provides evidence that similarity is important in early stages of a relationship whereas complementarity is more important for later stages

Question 34

Filter theory AO3 strength (temporal validity)

Answer 34

-lacking temporal validity as this theory was created in 1962
-Since then there has been a rise of online dating which has changed the process of the beginning a romantic
relationship
-Some would argue it has reduced the importance of some social demographic variables such as
geographical location
-Applications such as Tinder and Match.com have made meeting potential partners easier than ever
-Therefore, filter theory may not be as appropriate in modern society as a factor affecting attraction in
romantic relationships

Question 35

Filter theory AO3 strength (not apply to long term)

Answer 35

-may not fully apply to long-term relationships
-Filter theory suggests that satisfaction in long-term relationship is linked to complementarity of need for example one partner may be more dominant whereas the other more
submissive
-However, it has been found that lesbian couples who reported equal dominance in their long-term
relationships (4 ½ years) were most satisfied
-Therefore lowering the validity of complementarity in filter theory as a similarity of needs may be better associated with long-term
satisfaction

Question 36

SET AO1

Answer 36

-considers how parties exchange rewards and costs
-Homan suggested that relationships involve rewards BUT ALSO costs
-individuals are attracted to those who offer more rewards
-Satisfaction from a relationship depends on the ratio between costs and benefits
-If rewards outweigh the costs, there is PROFIT
-a relationship where the rewards exceed the costs and is mutually beneficial
will be maintained
-a relationship where the rewards exceed the costs and is mutually beneficial
will be maintained:
-comparison levels
-comparison levels of alternatives

Question 37

They said that there are two types of comparisons where we measure the profits of our relationship:

Answer 37

comparison levels

comparison levels of alternatives

Question 38

comparison levels

Answer 38

-develops from our past relationships and we use this to compare with our current relationship rewards
-expectations of our current ones
-influenced by our social norms

Question 39

comparison levels of alternatives

Answer 39

compare our rewards and costs in our current relationships compared to potential ones

predicts we will stay in our relationship as long as we believe it is more rewarding than alternatives

Question 40

Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory AO3 RTS

Answer 40

-RTS Kurdeck
-He asked gay, lesbian and heterosexual couples to complete questionnaires measuring relationship commitment and the rewards/costs of their relationship
-He found that those partners who were most committed perceived more rewards and fewer
costs and viewed alternative relationships as unattractive
-Therefore these findings increase the validity of the social exchange theory as a mutually beneficial relationship where both parties are in profit will be maintained

Answer 41

One limitation of SET as a theory of romantic relationships is the claim that dissatisfaction
arises only after a relationship stops being profitable. SET suggests that we become dissatisfied
when we decide that the costs of the relationship outweigh the rewards or alternatives are
more attractive. It has been argued that we don’t monitor costs and rewards, or consider
alternatives, until after we become dissatisfied. When satisfied we don’t consider the
alternatives. Suggesting that considering costs and alternatives are caused by dissatisfaction
rather than dissatisfaction causing us to consider alternatives, limiting the SET as an
explanation for romantic relationships.