Issues and debates

Question 1

what is universality

Answer 1

idea that conclusions drawn from research can be applied to
everybody, regardless of time period/gender/culture

Question 2

what is gender bias

Answer 2

When psychological research or theory offers a view that does not
represent the experience and behaviour of either men or women

Question 3

three major types of gender bias

Answer 3

androcentrism
alpha bias
beta bias

Question 4

Androcentrism

Answer 4

Research that is based on only males, then uses as the standard/ expected norm for both sexes

If our understanding of what is ‘normal’ behavior comes from male only
samples, then any behavior that deviates form this is seen as abnormal/inferior

This leads to female behavior being misunderstood/pathologised

Question 5

Beta Bias

Answer 5

Research misrepresent behaviour as they ignore/minimise the
differences between males and females

important aspects of female experience are ignored, so limits any conclusions drawn

often occurs when female participants are not included in a sample and
it is assumed the findings can apply equally to both sexes

the fight-or-flight response has been described as universal (applying equally to men and women) but much of the early research was
conducted on male animals

Question 6

Alpha Bias

Answer 6

Research misrepresent behaviours as it exaggerates differences
between males and females
serving to reinforce gender stereotypes
usually devalue women as women are often not seen as ‘the norm’

e.g. research on relationships (Buss) has shown that
males seek a partner that is young and attractive whereas
females seek a man with resources (e.g. high paid jobs)
reinforcing these gender stereotypes

Question 7

Gender bias AO3 limitation (alpha bias)

Answer 7

-Alpha bias research such as evolutionary psychology promotes inappropriate stereotypes
-findings suggest that females are dependent on males
-which can lead to feelings of inferiority and promote discrimination
-Evolutionary psychology emphasises that gender differences are innate which gives a biological justification for gender bias within society
-Therefore, gender bias within research can provide a scientific reasoning to deny women opportunities within employment
-can validate discrimination which can impact the economy and female’s life prospects

Question 8

Gender bias AO3 limitation (lab exp)

Answer 8

-Gender bias is further emphasised by male psychologists and the use of laboratory experiments
-argued to favour male participants
-Laboratory experiments produce inequitable (unfair) relationships, with male researchers able to use their power to label females as irrational or unreasonable
-with the use of quantitative data
-Tavris argues that the research methods that are used should be adapted
-to enable females more equality in research
-such as more qualitative data collection methods such as interviews to fully understand female behaviour
-Therefore, if we continue with this methodology (quantitative data, as opposed to qualitative data, to understand women),
-it may have negative consequences for women when generalised beyond the setting of the experiment

Question 9

Universality definition

Answer 9

idea that conclusions drawn from research can be applied to everybody, regardless of time period, gender or culture

e.g. believing that some behaviours are the same for all cultures

Question 10

culture bias definition

Answer 10

-psychological studies ignore cultural difference assuming that their
findings can be generalised globally
-However, much research has been conducted in Western universities (by educated people from wealthy backgrounds)
-meaning that the results are really only applicable to that culture
-Some bias researchers have assumed that their culture is the norm

Question 11

Ethnocentrism AO1

Answer 11

-assumption that one ethnic group is superior to another or all
-emphasizing the importance of one’s own culture
-leads to a belief that the behaviours of their ethnic group are the norm and others are seen as abnormal/strange
-lead to prejudice and discrimination
-research on IQ identified those from African-Caribbean backgrounds score 15 points lower on IQ tests than Caucasians

Question 12

Ethnocentrism AO3 Research on IQ

Answer 12

-Research into IQ provides a clear example of ethnocentric bias
-IQ tests have been developed/tested in the western world
-based on western views of intelligence
-so are not suitable for other cultures
-These IQ tests have been misused to reinforce superiority of the Western culture
-led to discrimination and prejudice in immigration policy and the sterilising of individuals who do not meet the expectation
of western IQ

However, research has shown that when using culturally relative IQ
tests cultural differences in scores do not exist therefore showing clear culture bias with the tool and the damaging consequences of such culture bias

Question 13

Ethnocentrism AO3 limitation in validity

Answer 13

-culture may also be an outdated concept
-This is because viewing cultures as individualistic/western or collectivist/non-western is
-a lazy generalisation as there are many similarities between cultures -due to increased interconnectedness (globalisation)
-and the effect of shared media influences
-e.g. Van ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg have shown that there is greater variation within cultures than between cultures in attachment types
-Therefore suggesting that the concept of culture may lack validity
-so researchers should place more focus on social/economic pressures on the individual within society
-rather than placing focus on culture

Question 14

Cultural relativism AO1

Answer 14

-behaviour’s vary between cultures
-there is no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ behaviour
-It is important to consider individuals behaviour within their culture before making a judgement
-This is because social norms are culturally relative as what is considered acceptable in one culture may be unacceptable elsewhere

-For example, when defining abnormality it should be appreciated that what is seen as abnormal in one culture, may not be deemed abnormal in another

Question 15

Culture relativism AO3 (defining abnormality)

Answer 15

-research within psychology can be criticized for lacking cultural
relativism
-for example when defining abnormality
-Deviation from social norms is criticised for lacking cultural relativism as different cultures have different social norms and expectations of behaviour
-e.g. messages sent from spirits could be a symptom of
Schizophrenia in a western culture but could be classed as a spiritual gift in non-western cultures
-Therefore, due to culture bias, it may not be appropriate to use Western diagnostic manuals to diagnose mental
health conditions in non-western cultures

Question 16

Culture relativism AO3 (exclusivity of cultural relativism and universality)

Answer 16

-cautious when they consider the distinction between cultural relativism and universality
-Whilst some behaviours may be culturally relative it would be inappropriate to assume that there is not at least
some universality

-e.g. Ainsworth’s research highlighted cultural differences in child rearing practices
-despite secure attachment being the most common across all cultures -there were differences with the insecure types of attachment in cultures
-Therefore to fully understand human behaviour it is essential to consider the relative contribution of both cultural relativism and universality when conducting research

Question 17

Free will definition

Answer 17

-human beings are free to choose our behaviours thoughts and actions
-may be external (environmental) or internal (biological) forces that can impact this choice
-but we have the ability to reject these pressures and self-determine our own destiny

Question 18

Determinism definition

Answer 18

argues that all behaviour is controlled and caused by external and internal factors and individuals have no free will over their behaviour

Question 19

Hard determinism

Answer 19

All human behaviour is a result of external and internal causes that we cannot control
Free will does not play a role, so indiv. do not have any choice in the behaviour they display

e.g. believed that an individual’s vulnerability to developing OCD is caused by internal factors such as the inheritance of a mutated SERT gene which causes anxiety

Question 20

Soft determinism

Answer 20

human behaviour is a result of external and internal causes
yet as individuals we also have the ability to make conscious decisions about what we want in life
which can also impact human behaviour

e.g. In the social learning theory we learn behaviour through observing a model and imitating them
however our thought processes must play a role as to whether or not we identify someone as a role model or not

Question 21

Biological determinism

Answer 21

Human behaviour is controlled by biological factors such as genetics, evolution & hormones

-e.g. Addiction to a substance/behaviour can be encouraged through lower
levels of D2 receptors
-e.g. OCD + SERT
-e.g. Sz + PCM1

Question 22

Environmental determinism

Answer 22

Behaviour is controlled by external factors within
individual’s surroundings such as parents, society, schools, peers,
upbringing
e.g. reinforcements and punishments
e.g. classical and operant
e.g. phobias

Question 23

Psychic determinism

Answer 23

Human behaviour is controlled by unconscious conflict within the mind,
which have been repressed from early childhood

e.g. Anxious personality could be cause by an overactive superego (morality principle)
e.g. Id + selfish personality

Question 24

the scientific emphasis on causal explanations

Answer 24

deterministic research allows for cause and effect
via the help of a lab experiment to help determinism
as the IV affects the DV
with the control of all extraneous variables
we can establish cause and affect between IV and DV
allowing us to create general laws on behaviour

Question 25

Free will vs Determinism AO3 (prac apps)

Answer 25

-determinism is highly scientific in nature
-as from research it is possible to predict behaviour and to control/treat it
-Determinism leads to practical applications
-because if we know the cause of abnormal behaviour in society
-e.g high level of dopamine causing Schizophrenia, then it will be easier for us to develop treatments
-e.g. it is unlikely that anyone in society would choose to have schizophrenia and experience total loss of control over their thoughts and behaviour (as free will would suggest)
-therefore using a deterministic stance has led to drugs being developed to help decrease dopamine activity in the brain (typical/atypical
antipsychotics)
-thus reduce positive symptoms of schizophrenia such as hallucinations
-This means when explaining human behaviour determinism can play an important part in applied psychology

Question 26

Free will vs Determinism AO3 (determinism in the real world)

Answer 26

-Although determinism has led to practical applications and the development of treatments
-taking a stance of hard determinism is inconsistent with the idea of self control and responsibility
-which has implications for the British legal system
-Hard determinism suggests that all human behaviour is a result of internal and external factors and that we have no choice over our behaviour
-However, in the court of law, offenders are considered morally accountable for their actions
-which would suggest that individual free will plays a role in whether or not someone commits a crime
-Therefore, this restricts the use of determinism in the real world when explaining people’s behaviour

Question 27

Free will vs Determinism AO3 (positive approach)

Answer 27

-The belief in self control and personal choice from free will can be seen as more positive stance than determinism
-This is because it allows people to believe that they have
choice over their behaviour
-which may have a positive effect on mental health
-e.g. research suggests that people who have an internal locus of control, believing that they have a high influence over their own behaviour, tend to be more mentally healthy compared to those who believe that their lives are decided by events outside of their control, who were found to be
at a greater risk of developing depression
-This suggests that even if we do not have free will, the fact we think we do may have a positive impact on mind and behaviour

Question 28

What is meant by the nature - nurture debate

Answer 28

nature-nurture debate discusses whether human behaviour is due to nature (genes) or nurture (environment, experiences)

Question 29

Nature AO1

Answer 29

-Nativist psychologists believe in the importance of heredity (nature)
-the idea that human characteristics/behaviours (mental and physical) are innate and passed on from one generation to the next via genes

e.g. Bowlby’s monotropic theory states that babies come into the world biologically preprogrammed to form attachments through behaviours such as social releasers because this will help them to survive. Therefore attachment is innate

Question 30

Nurture AO1

Answer 30

-Empiricists argue that the mind is a ‘blank slate’ at birth and our
behaviour is shaped by our environment, learning and experience

e.g behavioural psychologists explain attachment in terms of classical conditioning where food (UCS) is associated with the mother (NS) and through repeated pairings the mother becomes a CS which produces a CR in the child of pleasure. Therefore attachment is a learned behaviour

Question 31

What is meant by interactionism

Answer 31

-The interactionist approach takes a stance between the extreme nature and extreme nurture debate
-It argues that both genetics and the environment play a part in human behavior (diathesis-stress model).
-This approach states that genetics give us a predisposition to certain behaviours
-However, our genetics are then influenced by the environment
-An example of this is OCD. An individual may be born with a SERT gene which makes them vulnerable to OCD but may not develop the disorder unless they experience a stressful life event (triggering their OCD)

Question 32

Nature-nurture debate AO3 (nature + concordance)

Answer 32

-The nature side of the debate cannot be a full explanation of human
behaviour
-this is because if genes were 100% the sole cause of a behaviour,
MZ twins who share 100% of their genes should have 100% concordance rates
-However, this is not the case for example in the biological explanation of
schizophrenia concordance rates for MZ twins are only 48%
-Therefore, there must be other factors that affect human behaviour such as the environment and our experiences (nurture debate)

Question 33

Nature-nurture debate AO3 (interactionist approach)

Answer 33

-A more appropriate view when explaining human behaviour may be the
interactionist approach
-This would argue that genetics give us a predisposition to certain behaviours and that our genetics are then influenced by our environment and experiences
-e.g. Tienari found that in a group of Finnish adoptees, those most likely to develop schizophrenia (sz) had biological relatives with sz (diathesis) and had
dysfunctional relationships with their adoptive families (stressor)
-Therefore, showing both sides of the debate, nature and nurture, impacted on the likelihood that an individual developed schizophrenia
-supporting the idea of interactionism

Question 34

Nature-nurture debate AO3 (constructivism)

Answer 34

-environment and genes cannot be separated is the idea of constructivism
-This is when an individual creates their own nurture by actively seeking
environments which are appropriate for their nature
-For example, a naturally aggressive child is likely to feel more comfortable around children who show similar behaviours and will choose their
environment according to this
-This therefore complicates further the attempt to determine if nature or nurture have a larger impact on affecting human behaviour as the two may combine

Question 35

Holism definition

Answer 35

-This argument proposes that we should examine individuals complex
behaviour by taking into consideration all aspects of their experience, including culture
-advocates do not deny the potential influences of genetics/biochemistry but feel that it is necessary to take a step back from the detail and look at the social context of that individual i.e. friends and family and culture

Humanism is a more holistic approach as it explains complex human behaviour by focusing on broader experiences and circumstances (culture and socio-economic background)

Question 36

Reductionist definition

Answer 36

examines complex human behaviour by breaking it down into smaller constituent basic units

Biological Approach is reductionist because it explains complex
human behaviour by just a basic biological component (genes, neurotransmitters)

Question 37

Levels of explanation AO1

Answer 37

There are different ways of viewing the same phenomenon
To consider to explain human behaviour, these range from a lower level,
focusing on basic concepts to those at a higher, more holistic level

holism/reductionism debate asks whether it is appropriate to look at one level
specifically or whether more than one level is appropriate

OCD= socio-cultural expl, psychological expl, biological expl

Question 38

Biological reductionism

Answer 38

-explaining complex human behaviour by narrowing it down to basic biological systems e.g. genetic, physiology of the body brain or biochemistry
-assumptions of the biological approach have successfully been
applied to numerous areas in Psychology
-effects of psychoactive drugs on the brain have contributed to much of our understanding of neural processes
-might be possible to explain mental illnesses such as OCD, Depression and Schizophrenia at a biochemical level

Question 39

Environmental reductionism

Answer 39

-simplifies complex human behaviour down to learning through stimulus-response association e.g. classical conditioning
-A phobia of snakes can be explained as learned through an experience such as a bite from a snake, where fear and pain are associated with the snake
-This explanation ignores mental (cognitive) processes of the mind that occur at a psychological level

Question 40

Holism vs Reductionism in Relationships

Answer 40

-The evolutionary explanation of partner preferences is biologically
reductionist
-because it implies there is some genetic transmission of that
behaviour
-This therefore argues that why someone chooses their partner is
due to their biological make-up

-The theories of romantic relationships and attraction look at an interaction
between two people and this is more holistic

Question 41

Holism vs Reductionism in Schizophrenia

Answer 41

-Family dysfunction as an explanation for schizophrenia is a more holistic
explanation
-It considers the effect of how the family interacts on
developing schizophrenia

-In contrast, the genetic explanation adopts a biologically reductionist stance and in contrast to family dysfunction theory
-argues that the causes of schizophrenia are at the biological levels

Question 42

Holism vs Reductionism in Addiction

Answer 42

-The risk factors for addiction vary in how reductionist they are
-Genetics as a risk factor is a biologically reductionist explanation as it suggests that someone is likely to become addicted to a substance due to their genetic makeup
-In contrast, the other risk factors of family influence or peers are
more holistic as they consider the context around the individual
-how that might influence their behavior

Question 43

Holism vs Reductionism AO3 (group settings)

Answer 43

-Holism is praised for explaining aspects of social behaviour which only arise in group settings and cannot be understood at the level of the individual group member (reductionism)
-e.g. the effects of conformity on social roles and the deindividuation of the prisoners and guards in the Stanford Prison Experiment could not be understood by studying people at an individual level
-because it was an interaction between people and it was the behaviour of the
group that was important
-therefore it is important to take a holistic view in order to explain human behaviour.

Question 44

Holism vs Reductionism AO3 (scientific methods)

Answer 44

-Holistic approach does not use scientific methods to investigate human behaviour
-unlike the research from the reductionist explanation
-This is because, as the explanations become more complex and more holistic, they become more vague
-so psychologists are unable to test them scientifically unlike reductionist explanations such as the biological approach
-which conduct objective and empirical methods to establish cause and effect
-Therefore a reductionist approach has an increase in internal validity when compared to holistic approaches

Question 45

Holism vs Reductionism AO3 (prac application)

Answer 45

-A strength of using a reductionist approaches to explain human behaviour is that
-it is more likely to lead to practical applications compared to a holistic approach
-This is because studying basic units of behaviour
-e.g. which chemicals are involved in certain behavioural disorders can lead to effective treatment for that disorder
-e.g. dopamine is a key neurotransmitter in the development of schizophrenia which has lead to the production of antipsychotics which
regulate and individual’s dopamine levels and have been effective at reducing the symptoms of schizophrenia
-Therefore, using a reductionist explanation to study human behaviour is an
important part of applied psychology
-as it helps to treat people in the real world

Question 46

idiographic approach definition (1m)

Answer 46

an approach to research that focuses more on the individual case as a way
of understanding behaviour

Question 47

nomothetic approach definition (1m)

Answer 47

Studies groups of people to produce general laws of human behavior

Question 48

idiographic approach AO1

Answer 48

-sees indiv. as unique
-each with their own subjective experiences, motivations and values
-It is generally associated with methods that produce qualitative data such
as case studies, unstructured interviews and other self-report methods

-aim of the approach is to gain an insight into the person’s unique
way of viewing the world

-The Humanistic approach
-Rogers and Maslow were interested in documenting the conscious experience of the self
-They describe themselves as ‘anti-scientific’ and are more concerned about the unique experience of the individual rather than creating ‘general laws of behaviour’

-The Psychodynamic approach can also be seen as ‘idiographic’
-as much of Freud’s work involved the use of the case study method
-However, he did assume he identified ‘universal laws’ of behaviour and personality development which is a more nomothetic approach

Question 49

Nomothetic approach AO1

Answer 49

-produce general laws of human behaviour
-It mainly will be associated with methods that produce large amounts of quantitative data and that are scientific within psychology (experiments)
-These involve the study of large samples of people representative of the population to establish the ways we are similar and different from one another
-This approach will often use sampling methods such as random sampling to give a more representative sample

-The nomothetic approach tends to feature those approaches that are reductionist, deterministic and employ scientific methods
-Hypothesis are created and usually tested under controlled
conditions and findings are generated

-Most research carried about by behaviourist, cognitive and biological psychologists would meet the criteria of the nomothetic approach
-e.g. Skinner and the behaviourists studied the responses
of rats and pigeons in order to develop laws in learning
-Biological psychologists conduct brain scans to make generalisations about localisation of function
-Hypotheses are tested, statistically analysed and general laws and principles are proposed and developed – all features of a nomothetic approach

Question 50

Idiographic AO3 limitation (scientific methods)

Answer 50

-Critics argue that idiographic lack internal validity
-due to the absence of scientific methods
-Idiographic approaches use methods such as case studies and self-reports
which tend to be subjective and open to bias
-This is unlike nomothetic approaches which use objective and empirical methods such as lab experiments and controlled observations to collect
data on human behaviour
-Therefore, this can lower credibility of the idiographic approach in
comparison to the nomothetic approach
-which may be more respected by scientists and the general public due to their factual and scientific nature

Question 51

Idiographic AO3 strength (in-dept data)

Answer 51

-in-depth qualitative methods that provide rich data
-This is because it focuses just on the individual and their unique experience
-e.g. the case study of Clive Wearing gave valuable insight into brain damaged individuals and amnesia and giving us supporting how our memory has separate stores (MSM)
-Unlike the nomothetic approach which use large samples
-cannot find out in-depth/rich information about single cases
-Therefore, suggesting that the idiographic approach is a more effective approach for helping us understand the reasons behind human behaviour

Question 52

What are ethical issues

Answer 52

Participants in studies are protected
by guidelines in place by the British Psychological Society (BPS)
e.g protection from harm, confidentiality, right to withdraw

Question 53

what are ethical implications

Answer 53

For the groups represented in the research
what will be the impact on them / the group they represent

Question 54

What are the 4 ethical implication

Answer 54

-the effects of research findings on participants
-potential bias against people of certain cultures/socioeconomic background
-possible uses of the findings
-how valid the findings of the research are

Question 55

how could researchers deal with the effects of research findings on participants

Answer 55

Consider the effects of the findings on the participants before conducting the research
Although it may not be possible to know this before the study is conducted
Give a sensitive debrief
Keep data confidential

Question 56

how could researchers deal with potential bias against people of certain cultures/socioeconomic background

Answer 56

Consider the effects of the findings on the participants before conducting the research
Although it may not be possible to know this before the study is conducted

Question 57

how could researchers deal with possible uses of the findings

Answer 57

could the findings be used by the government to create policies/change legislation?

Findings are rarely neutral so all potential positive and negative uses should be considered before research is conducted

Question 58

how could researchers deal with how valid the findings of the research are

Answer 58

some research might be presented as objective when it has used fraudulent methods

Ensure the research being conducted using objective and well tested measures that can reduce or remove bias from their research, so we can be
confident of the findings
Participants should also be fully debriefed on the aims and uses of the research

Question 59

Bowlby’s research having ethical implications AO1

Answer 59

Bowlby developed his maternal deprivation theory
If argued that separation from the mother can lead to a range of psychological and social problems
including affectionless psychopathy

Question 60

Bowlby’s research having ethical implications AO3 limitation (social policy)

Answer 60

-negative ethical implications because it influenced social policy
-Mothers were encouraged to stay at home and look after children
-This is because the theory of maternal deprivation blames the
mother for the negative consequences
-which can have negative implications for women by making them feel inadequate, guilty and pressured to fulfil the maternal role
-As well as also making the father feel as though their role is less important

Question 61

Bowlby’s research having ethical implications AO3 limitation (validity)

Answer 61

-Whilst this socially sensitive research is controversial if it was based on
appropriate conclusions it could be seen as beneficial
-however the validity of Bowlby’s research has been criticised because much of the early research has been contradicted
-Bowlby has been accused of biased reporting to support his own theory
-Therefore showing the risks of poorly controlled research on controversial topics and the ethical implications for society

Question 62

Schizophrenia having ethical implications AO1

Answer 62

research findings can result in other ethical implications such as
potential bias or labelling against certain vulnerable groups or cultures

Question 63

Schizophrenia having ethical implications AO3 limitation

Answer 63

-research findings that schizophrenia is due to family dysfunction
-has ethical implications for the families of those who have a child with schizophrenia
-as people may label the family as the cause of the child’s schizophrenia
-This is because the explanation states that sz is due to faulty communication patterns in families such as high levels of expressed emotion causing relapse
-This is problematic as the parents of the child are having to take care of their child with Sz already and may experience feelings of guilt and blame for causing the condition
-Therefore, family dysfunction explanation of sz may not be an appropriate explanation

Question 64

Schizophrenia having ethical implications AO3 strength (prac apps)

Answer 64

-led to practical applications
-e.g. the theory of high expressed emotion causing relapse has led to the treatment of family therapy which aims to reduce levels of expressed emotion and has been effective in preventing relapse
-This suggests, the benefits of conducting socially sensitive research outweigh the costs despite the ethical implications