Relationships Flashcards
What is intra-sexual selection
Males preferred method of choosing females, quantity over quality. Males competing with other males.
Why do males aim for quantity over quality
Virtually endless amount of sperm produced until we die, no evolutionary need to be choosy
What does the evolutionary explanation suggest
That certain characteristics increase the possibility of reproduction and we are genetically attracted to these features.
What is anisogamy
The difference between male and female gametes; male has limitless mobile sperm, female has limited number of static eggs.
What was Buss’ study (1989)
10,000 people, 33 countries.
Surveyed them. Found females looked for resources (e.g good job) while males looked for physical attractiveness (youthful features).
Evaluate Buss’ 1989 study
+ Wide sample pool (10,000 adults)
+ Over 33 countries; reduces culture bias
- HOWEVER 77% participants from western countries, possibly making culture bias
- Social desirability factors, as was a self-report
What is inter-sexual selection
The preferred strategy of the female.
Female is more choosy than the male, valuing quality over quantity. Wanting resources and protection (money and size).
What is sexual dimoprhism
The result of desirable characteristics being passed down; males becoming larger and females smaller
What was Clark and Hatfield’s study
Asks university students “would you sleep with me”.
AKA “would you sleep with me” study
What were the results of Clark and Hatfields study
70% of men agreed, whereas 0% of women agreed
What does Clark and Hatfields study support
Both intrasexual and intersexual selection
What are some disadvantages of Clark and Hatfields study
Social desirability factors- women more likely to be shamed for accepting, men more likely to be praised
What are 3 disadvantages of the evolutionary explanation
Doesn’t account for relationships that are not motivated by reproduction, e.g homosexual relations
Gender bias, as women are more career focussed today and so the need for a resourceful partner is not necessary.
Deterministic
What is determinism
The determinist approach proposes that all behavior has a cause and is thus predictable. No free will.
What are 3 factors males find attractive
Rosy cheeks
Hip to waist ratio of 0.7
Big eyes
3 factors females find attractive
Height
Resources
Size
What is the halo effect
A cognitive shortcut where it is assumed that those who look good also have positive personality traits
What was the study supporting the halo effect
Dion et al. Ps asked to rate photographs of three strangers, categorised in attractiveness by a survey of 100 students. Most attractive associated most with traits of success, happiness and other positive traits.
What is the Matching Hypothesis
That we are attracted to people we perceive to be of a similar attraction level to us.
Who theorised the Filter Theory
Kerkhoff and Davis (1962)
What was the Filter Theory
The filter theory suggested that when selecting partners from the field of availables, people use three filters to narrow them down.
Increases the chance of a sustainable relationship with them.
What was the first filter proposed?
Social demography.
More likely to meet and then prefer a potential partner if a social demography is shared, as they are more similar with more common interests and attitudes.
What was the second proposed filter?
Similarity in attitudes.
Disclosure at this stage essential to ensure partners do share genuine similarity in interests.
What was the third proposed filter?
Complementarity.
One has traits that the other may lack, for example an extrovert complements an introvert.
This filter most important for couples past 18 months.
What are 2 criticisms of the Filter theory
Lack of temporal validity- more multi-cultural world today, social demographics not much of a barrier compared to the 60s
Correlation doesn’t equal causality- Anderson et al (2003) found people become more similar the more time they spend in relationship, countering second and third filter.
Outline self-disclosure
The extent to which a person reveals thoughts, feelings and behaviours which would usually be kept private.
Increase intimacy
Altman and Taylor (1973)
Found early relationships focus more on breadth, wide range of superficial topics, e.g work, holidays, hobbies.
Then moves onto people sharing more personal information, like future desires.
If sharing happens too early, or there is not reciprocity in process, may be a breakdown of trust
What did Sprecher and Hendrick study
Heterosexual couples studies
Found strong correlation between self disclosure and satisfaction.
What are the two elements of self disclosure
Breadth
Depth
Who found the two elements of self disclosure
Altman and Taylor
Explain breadth and depth in self disclosure
As the relationship develops, both breadth and depth of information increases.
At the start - Share a lot about ourselves, but very superficial, no depth. “Low risk” information. Breadth of disclosure is narrow, as many topics are off limits.
As relationship develops, number of topics available to be covered increases as well as the depth of the information.
Reciprocity
Reis and Shaver (1988)
For a relationship to develop there needs to be a reciprocal rate of disclosure.
Balance of disclosure needed,
Who found reciprocity is important in relationships developing
Reis and Shaver (1988)
What are two strengths of self-disclosure
Research support
RWA
research support of self disclosure
Sprecher and Hendrick (2004)
Studied heterosexual dating couples and found strong correlations between measures of satisfaction and level of disclosure in couples.
What is Filter Theory
Suggests we choose romantic partners based on a series of filters that narrows down the “field of availables”.
Who theorised “Filter Theory”
Kerckhoff and David (1962)
What were the filters
Social demography
Similarity in attitudes
Complementarity of needs
What is social demography
Refers to variables such as age, social background and location.
Social circumstances reduce range of people we are likely to meet.
Those with similar background to us we feel more comfortable talking to.
What is similarity in attitudes
Refers to individuals’ psychological characteristics.
Kerckhoff and Davis found similarity in attitudes was of central importance at the start of relationship.
Partners who are not similar get “filtered” out.
What is complementarity of needs
People with different needs are attracted to each other, as they can provide each other with mutual satisfaction of these needs, e.g one needs to be cared for and one needs to care for people.
What study did Kerckhoff and Davis carry out in 1962
Carried out longitudinal study of 94 couples at Duke University
Each partner in the couple completed two questionnaires assessing the degree to which their values aligned.
Seven months after, the couples completed a further questionnaire about how close they felt to their partner compared to start of study.
What were the findings of Kerckhoff and Davis’ study (1962)
For partners seeing each other for less than 18 months, similarity of attitudes and values was most significant predictor of how close they felt to partner. For those seeing each other for more than 18 months, only complementarity of needs was important predictor.
What are two weaknesses of filter theory (one research + one other)
Lack of research:
Levinger et al (1970)
Studied 330 couples who were “steadily attached” went through same procedures as Kerckhoff and Davis, and found no evidence that either similarity of attitudes and values or complementarity of needs influenced permanence of relationships.
Temporal validity
Social demographics matter less in the age of social media
What is a strength of Filter Theory
Byrne et al (1970)
Found individuals are more likely to be attracted to someone who they share many common attitudes with than someone they share few with.
What is social exchange theory
Assumes partners act out of self interest in exchanging rewards and costs. A satisfying relationship is one with higher rewards than costs.
Who theorised social exchange theory
Thibault and Kelly
Explain the two ways of measuring profit in romantic relationship according to SET
Comparison level - based on past experiences and social norms. Refers to what you would expect to get out of a relationship.
Comparison level for alternatives - Asks if alternative relationship options will give higher rewards.
What are the stages of relationship development according to social exchange theory
Sampling stage - explore costs and rewards in current platonic relationships
Bargaining stage - beginning of a relationship. Partners negotiating and identifying what is most profitable.
Commitment stage - as time goes on, sources of costs and rewards become more predictable and relationship stabilises.
Institutionalisation stage - partners now settled down because norms of relationship in terms of costs and rewards are firmly established.
What is a piece of research support for SET
Kurdek and Schmitt (1995)
Studied gay lesbian and heterosexual couples to complete questionnaires measuring relationship commitment and SET variables.
Most committed partners perceived the most rewards and fewest costs, and viewed alternatives as unattractive.
What are 2 limitations of SET
Vague concepts
Rewards and costs can vary person to person; a reward to one person, e.g status, can be unimportant to another.
Is not clear what the values of the two comparison levels must be before the relationship is threatened.
Does not explain why people stay in abusive relationships.
What is the equity theory
An economic theory of how relationships develop.
Acknowledges impact of costs and rewards on relationships, but takes into account equity.
What is equity
The perception partners have about whether the distribution of rewards and costs in the relationship is fair.
Who proposed the equity theory
Hatfield et al
What is an example of equity
One partner is disabled and cannot do physical tasks like housework. If the housework was distributed equally, it wouldn’t be seen as fair by either party.
What are consequences of inequity
A partner overbenefitting can feel guilt and shame, leading to dissatisfaction.
A partner underbenefitting can feel anger and hostility.
The greater the perceived inequity, the greater the dissatisfaction.
Explain changes in perceived equity
A change in the level of perceived equity over time makes us most dissatisfied.
For example, at start of relationship it may feel fine to put in more and get less out, but as time goes on this will not feel satisfying as it did.
Explain the two ways romantic partners deal with inequity
Dissatisfied partner likely to try make relationship more equitable if they believe it to be possible. More unfair the relationship is, the less likely this is to happen.
Dissatisfied partner experiences a cognitive change and revise perceptions of rewards and costs so relationship feels more equitable even if nothing changes.
What is a research support of equity theory
Mary Utne et al (1984)
Studied 118 recently married couples. Measured equity with two self report scales.
Participants aged between 16-45, together for over two years before marrying.
Found those perceiving relationship to be more equitable were more satisfied than those perceiving themselves as over or under benefitting.
What is a limitation of equity theory
Culture bias
Couples from individualistic culture, e.g US, considered relationships to be best when equitable.
But in collectivist cultures, e.g Jamaica, were most satisfied when overbenefitting.
This was true of both men and woman so gender bias was not a factor.
Who created the investment model
Rusbult (2011)
What is the investment model
States that partners stay because of commitment that has already been put in.
What are the three factors of the investment model
Satisfaction - based on comparison level from SET.
Weighs up rewards and costs to decide satisfaction.
Comparison with alternatives - partners asking themselves if needs could be met better outside of current relationship.
Investment - Rusbult realised CL and CLalt from SET aren’t enough to explain commitment.
Why did Rusbult introduce the investment factor
Rusbult believed that if relationships died when costs outweighed rewards, then many more relationships would end as time went on and they became dissatisfied, or more attractive alternatives presented themselves.
What is investment in the investment model
Resources associated with a relationship that partners would lose if their relationship were to end.
What are the two types of investment
Intrinsic investment - resources we have directly put into, like money, possessions, energy, emotion and self disclosure.
Extrinsic investment are resources that did not previously feature in the relationship, but is closely associated with it, e.g a shared car, mutual friends, children.
What are 2 strengths of the investment model (+ studies to go with strengths)
Le and Agnew (2003)
Reviewed 52 studies from late 70s to 199, with 11,000 participants from 5 countries.
Found satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investment size all predicted relationship commitment.
Suggests there is validity to Rusbults claim.
Explains abusive relationships
Rusbult and Martz (1995)
Studied “battered” women at a shelter and found those most likely to return to an abusive partner (so presumably most committed) made the greatest investment and had the least alternatives.
Strengthens model as it doesn’t state that only satisfied people stay in relationships.
Who created the reduced cues theory
Lee Sproull and Sara Kiesler (1986)
What is the reduced cues theory
States virtual relationships are less effective than FtF ones as they lack cues we depend on in interactions, e.g smiling.
What does the reduced cues theory believe is affected
A persons sense of individual identity in a virtual relationship (de-individuation), leading to disinhibition.
This leaves people free to express bluntly and aggressively, thus causing others to not want to self-disclose to them.
What is a ‘gate’
Any obstacle to forming a relationship, like physical unattractiveness or social anxiety.
Who theorised the hyperpersonal model
Joseph Walther (1996)
What is the hyperpersonal model
Argues virtual relationships can be more personal and involve greater self disclosure than FtF relationships.
Why can virtual relationships be more personal according to hyperpersonal model
Self-disclosure happens earlier, and once established are more intimate and intense
What are the two key features of hypersonal self-disclosure
Sender of a message has greater control over what is said and cues than they would in a FtF interaction. This is selective self-presentation.
Receiver gains a positive impression of sender, and gives feedback which reinforces the selective self-presentation
What is selective self-presentation
Sender of a message having greater control over what they disclose about themselves
What are the two types of self-disclosure in hypersonal model
Hyperhonest (intensely truthful)
Hyperdishonest (intensely untruthful)
What are benefits of an absence of gates in a virtual relationship
Self disclosure becomes more frequent allowing relationship to ‘get off the ground’
Refocuses attention on self-disclosure rather than superficial factors like looks.
Individuals freed to be more like their ‘true selves’ compared to FtF interactions.
What are drawbacks to an absence of gates in a virtual relationship
Scope for people to create untrue identities and deceive people.
What is a limitation of reduced cues theory
Virtual cues are different to FtF cues, rather than absent.
Walther and Tidwell (1995) point out cues used in online interactions like style and timing of messages.
These cues cannot be explained by the reduced cues theory as it shows that virtual relationships can be just as nuanced and personal as FtF
What is a limitation of hyperpersonal model
Ruppel et al (2017)
Meta-analysis of 25 studies comparing self-disclosure in FtF and virtual interactions.
Found frequency, breadth and depth of self disclosure were all higher in FtF interactions.
This contradicts the hyperpersonal models view that greater intimacy of virtual relationships should lead to deeper self disclosure.
What is a strength of hyperpersonal model
Whitty and Joinson (2009)
Evidence that FtF and virtual relationships do differ in types of self-disclosure used.
They found how self-presentation is manipulated in virtual relationships, e.g questions asked are usually direct and intimate (hyperhonest), whereas FtF conversations often utilise small talk.
Self-presentation also can be dishonest by changing profile details (hyperdishonest).
What is a support of virtual relationships
McKenna and Bargh (2000)
Found of those who formed relationships online, 70% were intact after two years, compared to 50% real world relationships.
What is a parasocial relationship
One-sided, unrecirpocal relationships, usually with a celebrity
Who developed the celebrity attitude scale
McCutcheon (2002)
Who used the CAS
Maltby et al (2006)
What did Maltby use CAS for (celebrity attitude scale)
Large scale survey to develop three levels of parasocial relationships
What are the three levels of parasocial relationships
Entertainment-social
Intense-personal
Borderline-pathological
What is the entertainment-social level
Least intense level of celebrity worship.
Celebrities viewed as sources of entertainment and fuel for social interaction, e.g discussing DiCaprios latest girlfriend.
What is the intense-personal level
An intermediate level of celebrity worship that reflects a greater personal involvement in a parasocial relationship with the celebrity.
e.g, a Kim Kardashian fan may have frequent obsessive thoughts and see her as their ‘soulmate’.
What is the borderline-pathological level
Strongest level of celebrity worship
Features uncontrollable fantasising and extreme behaviours. These may include spending or planning to spend a large sum of money on a celebrity related object (e.g James Bonds Aston Martin).
Who created the absorption addiction model
McCutcheon (2002)
What is the absorption addiction model
McCutcheon linked the parasocial relationship levels to deficiencies people have in their own lives, like low self-esteem and a lack of fulfilment in every day relationships.
What are the two components to the absorption-addiction model
Absorption
Addiction
What is the absorption component to absorption-addiction model
Seeking fulfilment in celebrity worship motivates an individual to focus their attention as far as possible on the celebrity, to become preoccupied with the celebrity and identify with them.
What is the addiction component to absorption-addiction model
Individual finds they need to increase their ‘dose’ of the celebrity to satisfy them, which may lead to more extreme behaviours and delusional thinking.
For example, stalking a celebrity because they believe the celebrity actually wants to reciprocate their feelings.
What is a strength of the ‘levels’ model
Research support
McCutcheon et al (2016)
Used CAS to to measure level of parasocial relationships, as well as assessing the participants’ problems in their intimate relationships.
Participants scoring as intense-personal or borderline-pathological tended to experience a high level of anxiety in intimate relationships, while those at entertainment-social level generally did not.
This suggests celebrity-worshippers can be classed into three categories and these categories are predictive of actual behaviour.
What is a support for absorption addiction model
Matby et al (2005)
Surveyed females who reported an intense-personal parasocial relationship with a female celebrity whose body shape they admired.
They found that these females tended to have a poor body image.
This supports the models association between poor psychological functioning and the level of parasocial relationship.
What is a limitation of the parasocial relationships models
Causation and correlation.
McCutcheons and others’ studies used correlational analysis, which do not show causal relationships between variables.
For example, a female adolescent may have perfectly fine body image, until they begin following the Kardashians and then develop a negative body image.
What are the three types of relationship breakdown in Ducks model
Pre existing doom
Mechanical failure
Sudden death
What is pre existing doom
Individuals are incompatible from the start
What is mechanical failure
Compatible people are no longer able to function as a couple
What is sudden death
A traumatic event like cheating or big argument
What is the intra-psychic stage
Create plans to confront partner about problems to either save relationship or end it
What is the dyadic phase
Partners confront each other to discuss issues.
What is the social phase
Partners announce they are splitting to social netowrk and engage in activities aimed at getting over relationship.
Social members pick sides
What is the grave dressing phase
Partners create narrative of how break up happened to save face, such as blaming the partner or external facotrs.
What are two benefits to Ducks model of relationship breakdown
Tashiro and Frazier
Self report on 96 undergrads recalling experience of a break up.
Participants experienced both emotional distress and growth.
This suggests that breakdowns with grave dressing stage allows recovery.
However, social desirability factors, retrospective recall, and population validity are negatives.
RWA to relationship counselling
What is a limitation of Ducks break down model
Beta bias - Minimises differences between men and women, who have been found to deal with relationships differently.
