Relations with Indigenous Peoples 1947-67 Flashcards

1
Q

What were the common factors propelling nationalist/independence movements across the colonies after WW2 (5)?

A

1) The legacy of WW2.
2) Economic and social discontent.
3) Ethnic and religious rivalries.
4) Charismatic and Western-educated leaders.
5) Mass political parties.

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2
Q

How did the legacy of WW2 propel nationalist/independence movements across the colonies?

A

Parts of the Middle-East/North Africa served as a theatre of war, whilst some Asian colonies were occupied by the Japanese (e.g. Singapore). The colonies contributed millions of troops to WW2, many dying or being taken prisoner. Many felt that independence was deserved, and Britain’s seeming reluctance to decolonise in the early-mid 1940s brough impatience and disillusionment.

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3
Q

How did economic and social discontent propel nationalist/independence movements across the colonies (3)?

A

1) Despite post-war development of the colonies, most locals had not been trained sufficiently to benefit from the job opportunities, with some developments coming at the expense of traditional farming and employment.
2) In some areas, foreigners and locals competed for land, whilst in some areas there was a surplus of educated youths unwilling to perform manual labour (e.g. in the Gold Coast).
3) When British projects failed, e.g. the Tanganyika Groundnut Scheme, it was the locals who suffered.

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4
Q

How did ethnic and religious tensions propel nationalist/independence movements across the colonies?

A

Some ethnic groups felt discriminated against when the British favoured other groups in running a colonial government. This flared ethnic tensions, and anti-British sentiment. E.g. British acceptance that ‘Malay nationality’ be restricted to those of Malay ethnicity in 1949. This encouraged the Chinese population to support nationalist attacks on Europeans.

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5
Q

How did charismatic and Western-educated leaders propel nationalist/independence movements across the colonies?

A

Key figures were able to unite different ethnic groups behind the drive for independence. E.g. Nkrumah (Gold Coast), Azikiwe (Nigeria), Lee Kuan Yew (Singapore), Aung San (Burma) and Kaunda (Zambia). These leaders were educated in Western schools, with many travelling to Europe or the USA, learning of liberalism, Marxism and socialism, enabling them to articulate their views in a Western-style way.

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6
Q

How did mass political parties propel nationalist/independence movements across the colonies?

A

By showing that a movement had a strong, organised and mass following, leaders were able to put Britain in a difficult position. Seeing themselves as a strong proponent for democracy, they were forced to make concessions. E.g. the CPP (Gold Coast), AFPFL (Burma), ANC in Rhodesia and South Africa, and the MCA in Malaya.

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7
Q

What was the Mau Mau?

A

A Kenyan movement largely confined to the Kikuyu people.

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8
Q

What was the 3 main causes of the Mau Mau rebellion?

A

1) The Kikuyu had found themselves increasingly pushed off their land in the fertile ‘White Highlands’ to make room for white settlers. The Kikuyu were sent to reservation lands, which were inadequate, and evictions were often violent. The Kikuyu people were angry, especially the amongst the young, poor, and landless.
2) Sir Philip Mitchell, Governor of Kenya, announced in 1948 that self-government was not possible in the near future, fuelling the frustration of black Kenyans.
3) In 1952, the Mau Mau murdered increasingly (white farmers or fellow Kikuyu, many Christian, who refused to take the Mau Mau oath). Chief Kungu of the kikuyu spoke out, but was assassinated in October 1952. White settlers panicked when reports came out of Mau Mau oaths of allegiance in armed insurrection against Britain, many demanding a brutal British reprisal.

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9
Q

Who was Sir Evelyn Baring (Jr)?

A

The younger son of Evelyn Baring, Lord Cromer. Baring served as Governor of Rhodesia 1942-44, and then Governor of Kenya 1952-59.

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10
Q

How did Britain combat the Mau Mau insurgency (3)?

A

1) Baring declared a State of Emergency in 1952, suspending all black political rights, and the Mau Mau were treated as political terrorists. Britain sent 1000s of troops to stomp out the insurgency.
2) Britain used a ‘home guard’ of loyal Kikuyu alongside British troops, accompanied by helicopters and planes. Kikuyu villages were uprooted by British soldiers and relocated, eventually cornering the Mau Mau in the forests below Mount Kenya, destroying them.
3) Britain hanged suspects on the least excuse, and placed 1000s in ‘rehabilitation camps’, where they were tortured and interrogated to identify Mau Mau sympathisers.

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11
Q

How many died, and how many were detained, in the Mau Mau rebellion (2)?

A

1) Official figures state that 1952-56: 11-12,000 killed, and 81,000 detained.
2) Historians think this is higher, with Anderson estimating a death toll of 25,000, and Elkins believing 130-300,000 were unaccounted for.

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12
Q

What were the Hola Camp atrocities of 1959?

A

The Hola Camp (Kenya) housed Mau Mau prisoners who would not relinquish their oath. The commandant chose 88 prisoners to undertake manual labour or join rehabilitation schemes, but they refused. 11 were beaten to death, with 77 suffering severe injuries. It was officially reported as due to contaminated water, until an examining doctor discovered the truth.

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13
Q

What was the significance of the Mau Mau rebellion on Britain (2)?

A

1) The Mau Mau rebellion lasted 5 years, showing colonial governments were poorly equipped to combat armed insurrection on a large scale.
2) It showed that Britain had to use force to impose their will on a majority black population.

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14
Q

How was the Malayan path to independence complicated in 1949?

A

Racial tensions were fuelled by Britain’s stance that ‘Malay nationality’ be restricted to those of Malay ethnicity in 1949. This angered the non-Malays, especially the Chinese.

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15
Q

Why did Britain cooperate with the UMNO during the Malayan emergency (3)?

A

1) The UMNO offered a plan of action, e.g. extending private schooling.
2) The UMNO was ready to comabtt the militant independence movements, such as the Malayan Races Liberation Army (MRLA) and the MCP.
3) Britain did not want Communism to spread, with many Chinese-Malaysians encouraged by the spread of Communism in China.

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16
Q

Explain the assassination of Sir Henry Gurney (High Commissioner of Malaya) in 1951.

A

In October 1951, Gurney’s convoy, including his Rolls-Royce, a police van and an armoured scout car, were shot at by 38 MCP guerrillas. Gurney was injured, and was assassinated as he left his car.

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17
Q

How did Britain regain stability in Malaya 1955-57?

A

Britain depended on the local indigenous elite, offering the promise of self-government. Malaya eventually gained independence in August 1957.

18
Q

Why was Britain concerned about Malaya in the 1950s (3)?

A

1) Malaya was a valuable economic resource, due to the tin and rubber industry, magnified by the dollar value of rubber.
2) Malaya was a prime strategic asset for Britain in Asia.
3) Britain feared the spread of Communism, following the announcement of the PRC in 1949.

19
Q

How was Nigeria ethnically divided (4)?

A

1) The north was an Islamic area under emirs, with nationalist and anti-Western sentiment, dominated by the Hausa and Fulani peoples.
2) The west was economically advanced, seeking independent control, dominated by the Yoruba peoples.
3) The east was dominated by the Igbo peoples.
4) The south contained European influences, professional organisations of teachers, lawyers, etc. and independent Christian Churches. Nationalism was still prominent here. The main ethic group here was the Igbo peoples.

20
Q

Who were the 3 main nationalist independence parties in Nigeria?

A

1) The National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC).
2) The Action Group.
3) The Northern People’s Congress (NPC).

21
Q

What was the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC)?

A

The party with the widest appeal, under Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe, who owned many newspapers to argue the nationalist cause. It was dominated by the Igbo.

22
Q

What was the Action Group?

A

Dominated by the Yoruba, and representing the relatively economically advanced western regions, the AG sought autonomous states within a federal structure.

23
Q

What was the Northern People’s Congress (NPC)?

A

Dominated by the Hausa and Fulani ethnic groups, and led by Western-educated northern Muslims, they wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. The NPC was not as popular due to peasant dissatisfaction, and rivalry amongst Muslim factions.

24
Q

How did ethnic rivalry in Nigeria escalate 1946-54 (3)?

A

1) Southern political activists sought self-government to promote educational and economic development, but the northern emirs demanded full control over economic and political change.
2) The Yoruba and Igbo both competed for control.
3) As Britain granted more power to local officials and politicians, they rivalled one another over government jobs, government contracts, local development funds, market permits, trade licenses, etc.

25
Q

When did the Southern, Western, Eastern and Northern regions of Nigeria gain self-governing status?

A

The Southern, Western and Eastern regions gained formal self governing status in 1957, and the Northern region in 1959.

26
Q

Why were there ethnic tensions in Southern and Northern Rhodesia before 1953 (3)?

A

1) In both Rhodesia’s there was black resentment at low pay and few rights, intensified by the increase in white settlers post-WW2.
2) The 129,000 white settlers, many being wealthy farmers, of Southern Rhodesia had gained self-government in 1923, and aimed to preserve white power.
3) The 36,000 white settlers of Northern Rhodesia, many involved in the copper mining industry, wanted white control, despite its status as a protectorate.

27
Q

What was the significance of the creation of the CAF for ethnic tensions in Nyasaland and Northern and Southern Rhodesia?

A

Britain feared a situation where Southern Rhodesia would extend their influence North, and created a CAF with both Northern and Southern Rhodesia, and Nyasaland. They also hoped it would protect Africans from the discriminatory Southern Rhodesian laws. However the Southern whites tried to use the CAF to cement their position, and tried to give the Northern whites the same political power. Nyasaland was left alone, with few white people, therefore resisting the CAF in 1953.

28
Q

How were the Southern Rhodesian laws discriminatory in regards to voting c1953?

A

It allowed black people to vote, but only if they met certain education and property requirements, which few had.

29
Q

Who was Dr Hastings Banda?

A

Born in Nyasaland and educated by Western missionaries, he returned from London to Kenya in 1959, involving himself politically. He became Prime Minister in 1963, and President from 1966 to 1994.

30
Q

What was the Nkata Bay incident, March 1959?

A

Prisoners detained in Northern Rhodesia were waiting in Nkata Bay for a lake steamer to take them to the South. A local Congress leader tried to secure their release, and encouraged a large crowd to gather at the dockside. The District Commissioner, fearing the situation was out of control, ordered troops to open fire on the crowds. 20 died.

31
Q

Why did Sir Robert Armitage declare a State of Emergency in Nyasaland in 1959?

A

Black African nationalist congress parties emerged in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, with Dr Hastings Banda returning to Nyasaland to lead a campaign to end the CAF. Fearing the collapse of British authority, Sir Robert Armitage, Governor of Nyasaland declared a State of Emergency.

32
Q

What was the effect of the State of Emergency in Nyasaland 1959 on black activists (3)?

A

1) The Nyasaland African Congress (NAC) was banned, and its leaders, including Hastings Banda and Kenneth Kaunda, were imprisoned.
2) Around 1300 people, many members of congress parties were detained without trial, with over 2000 imprisoned for offenses relating to the Emergency.
3) Reinforcements from Northern and Southern Rhodesia were used to round up activists, with 51 killed by troops or police, including 20 in the Nkata Bay incident.

33
Q

Who was Kenneth Kaunda?

A

In 1953, he became secretary-general of the ANC in Northern Rhodesia, and founded the Zambian African National Congress (ZANC) in 1958. He led Zambia (Northern Rhodesia) to independence, becoming their President 1964-91.

34
Q

What did the Devlin Commission of 1959 conclude in regards to Nyasaland?

A

It denounced Nyasaland for using illegal and unnecessary force, concluding the State of Emergency was an overreaction.

35
Q

When was the CAF dissolved, and what happened to each of the 3 colonies?

A

1) Northern Rhodesia became Zambia (with provision for the emergence of a Black African majority government) and a member of the Commonwealth.
2) Nyasaland became Malawi, with a black majority rule and as a member of the Commonwealth.
3) Southern Rhodesia retained a white-dominated government, and in 1965 declared a UDI as ‘Rhodesia’.

36
Q

What is a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI)?

A

A declaration of independence from imperial rule without the normal two sided negotiations and legal proceedings expected to establish this.

37
Q

Who was Ian Smith?

A

A MP in Southern Rhodesia and a supporter of the CAF in 1953. When this broke down, he helped form the Rhodesian Front Party (RF). He became Prime Minister in 1964, issuing a UDI in 1965, and staying in power until 1979, refusing to compromise.

38
Q

What was the White Rhodesian Front?

A

A hard-line white settler movement dominated by Ian Smith in Southern Rhodesia. The RF rejected British demand for majority rule or any form of shared white/black power as the price of independence. The RF could do this as they had their own small army. The RF imprisoned many black nationalists.

39
Q

When did Ian Smith declare a UDI as ‘Rhodesia’?

A

11 November 1965.

40
Q

What was the significance of Smith’s UDI to Britain (5)?

A

1) The UDI was rejected as illegal and unconstitutional by Britain, the UN, and most of the world. Britain imposed sanctions, but they were ineffective, as South Africa refused to cooperate.
2) It proved Britain’s ineffectiveness, whilst claiming a world role, it was unable to deal with rebels in its ex colony.
3) Britain was criticised by the Commonwealth, accusing them of betraying Commonwealth ideals.
4) The UDI triggered a 15 year long civil war between white people and black nationalists in Smith’s Rhodesia.
5) Eventually black African majority rule was established, and Rhodesia became Zimbabwe in 1980, the last British African colony to gain independence.