Red, Rose and No/Low Alcohol Winemaking Options

Question 1

Describe what needs to be extracted during red wine production

Answer 1

Colour, flavour, tannin and anthocyanins.
General aim is to extract these compounds so wine is suitably concentrated and balanced, but not extract too much

Question 2

What are the 3 points in the production process when extraction could be undertaken

Answer 2

Pre-fermentation
During fermentation
After fermentation

Question 3

List the factors that can influence the amount of extraction during red winemaking

Answer 3

Temperature
Alcohol level
Grape variety
Timing of extraction
Techniques used

Question 4

What are the methods used for extraction during pre-fermentation maceration in red wine making

Answer 4

Cold soaking
Maceration with heat - thermovinification, flash detente

Question 5

Describe how cold soaking is used in red winemaking

Answer 5

Cold soaking is also known as cold maceration or pre-fermentation maceration. Juice and skins are chilled to 4-10C to reduce the rate of oxidation, the threat from spoilage organisms and risk of spontaneous fermentation starting. It lasts for 3-7 days, with punching down and/or pumping over used.
Is a gentle technique suitable for premium wines.
Common with Pinot Noir to promote colour intensity.
Cost to cold soaking in the energy required to chill the wine.
Time taken for cold soaking means its often not suitable for high-volume inexpensive wines

Question 6

Describe how maceration with heat is used in red winemaking

Answer 6

Higher temps lead to greater extraction. Extracts high levels of anthocyanins and flavours quickly.
Wines produced in this way tend to have issues with colour stability because not enough tannin to bind with anthocyanins and form stable compounds.
Best suited for inexpensive or mid-priced wines that will be consumed shortly after production. May be blended in higher quality wines, bringing juicy, fruity flavours to blends.

Question 7

Describe how the thermovinification process works in red winemaking

Answer 7

Thermovinification involves heating must to around 50-60C and sometimes higher. Time spent macerating at this heat can range from a number of minutes to several hours.
The higher the temp, the shorter the maceration

Question 8

Describe how the flash detente process works in red winemaking

Answer 8

Flash detente is when destemmed grapes are quickly heated to 85-90C and then rapidly cooled under a vacuum. This takes place in 2 minutes. Short time at high temps limits risk of cooked flavours developing.
The process bursts cells in grape skins, allowing very rapid extraction of anthocyanins and flavours.
Vacuum systems are expensive. Only used at high volume wineries where large throughput can justify the cost.
Can be used as a treatment for smoke taint

Question 9

Describe fermentation temperatures for red wine

Answer 9

Red wines usually fermented at warmer temps than white wines because higher temps help promote extraction. But warm temps can cause volatile, fruity aromas to evaporate - balance needs to be struck.
Fruit, low tannin wines - cool fermentation temps around 20C
Greater extraction to produce wines with concentration and tannin structure to age, may be fermented at warmer temps around 30C

Question 10

List the cap management techniques used in red winemaking

Answer 10

Punching down
Pumping over
Rack and return
Ganimede
Rotary fermenters

Question 11

Describe the punching down cap management technique used in red winemaking

Answer 11

A plunger is submerged in the cap of grape skins into the liquid. This can be done by hand or by mechanized plunger. Carrying out by hand is labour intensive and best suited to low-volume production of premium wines.
Only physically possible to punch down cap manually and ensure adequate mixing of skins in relatively small, open top vessels.
Gentle process. Often referred to by french name pigeage

Question 12

Describe the pumping over cap management technique used in red winemaking

Answer 12

Juice/wine taken from near bottom of vessel and sprayed over the cap of skins. Liquid extracts colour, tannins, and flavours from cap as it passes through. Gentle extraction. Usually punching down or rack and return is also required to extract enough colour, flavour and tannin.
Can be carried out aerobically by splashing wine against inside wall of open vat. Beneficial for yeast health and avoid reductive off-flavours such as rotten eggs.
Can carry out anaerobically in closed vessel by attaching house to a top at top of vessel or keeping the hose close to the cap in an open vessel.
Modern wineries have hoses installed at each tank. Can be pre-programmed to occur at certain times and for certain durations, reducing need for labour.
Also called by french term remontage.

Question 13

Describe the rack and return cap management technique used in red winemaking

Answer 13

Juice pumped from one vessel to another vessel. As juice pumped out of vessel, the cap of skins falls down the vessel. Juice then pumped from new vessel through the top of original vessel and sprayed over the skins. Breaks up the cap and mixes juice/skins thoroughly.
More extractive than pumping over or punching down.
Can only be used 1-3 times during fermentation along with punching down and pumping over.
Cannot be fully automated and requires labour to setup & monitor.
French name is delestage.
Requires clean vessel to be available - can be an issue in busy wineries.
Most commonly used for red wines where medium to high levels of flavour, colour and tannin are desired

Question 14

Describe the ganimede cap management technique used in red winemaking

Answer 14

Ganimede is a specialized tank that bubbles CO2 up through must/wine. Pressure builds up under the cap, until the cap bursts. Breaks up cap quickly and is relatively extractive. Suited to producing wines with medium to high colour, tannins and flavour (Cab Sauv, Syrah)
Newer technique that is becoming increasingly common - can be fully automated and less labour intensive.
Specialized tanks slightly more expensive than standard SS tanks.
Oxygen can be used instead of CO2 if winemaker wants to expose must/wine to oxygen during fermentation

Question 15

Describe the rotary fermenters that are a cap management technique used in red winemaking

Answer 15

Rotary fermenters are horizontal, closed, SS tanks. The whole tank rotates and internal blades break up the cap and ensure adequate mixing. Horizontal orientation of tank increases surface area between grape skins and juice.
Very effective at extracting. Best suited for wines with medium to high levels of colour, tannin and flavour (Cab Sauv, Syrah).
Can be programmed to rotate at certain times and for certain amount of time - labour requirements low.
Commonly used for high-volume inexpensive or mid-priced wines of acceptable or good quality.
Techniques that are gentler allow more precision and preferred for very good to outstanding, premium-priced wines.
Takes are expensive compared to standard SS; large volumes of wine need to be fermented in them to make them cost effective

Question 16

List the other cap management techniques that can be used for red winemaking

Answer 16

Must concentration
Co-fermentation

Question 17

Describe the must concentration cap management technique that is used for red winemaking

Answer 17

Must concentration is where levels of colour, flavours and tannins can be increased by drawing off juice just after crushing and before the start of fermentation.
Lowers the volume of red wine - implications for price of wine.
Juice that is removed is light in colour, flavour and tannin and be used to make rose.
This method is often referred to by the French term saignee

Question 18

Describe the co-fermentation cap management technique that is used for red winemaking

Answer 18

Process of fermenting different varieties together in same vessel. Commonly refers to fermenting a small portion of white grapes within a red wine fermentation. Takes advantage of some of the phenolic compounds found in white varieties that can increase colour intensity and stability through binding with anthocyanins.
White grapes contribute aroma compounds.
Mixed results - adding too much white grapes can lead to dilution and lower colour intensity.
Common in Cote Rotie, Rhone valley - famous for co-fermentation of Syrah and Viognier.
Does not incur particular costs

Question 19

What are the advantages and disadvantages of maceration after fermentation

Question 20

What are the three options for whole bunch/berry fermentations

Answer 20

Semi-carbonic maceration
Carbonic maceration
Semi-carbonic maceration and alcoholic fermentation

Question 21

Describe the semi-carbonic maceration technique used in red winemaking

Answer 21

Fermentation vessel is filled with whole bunches. Grapes at bottom of vessel are crushed under weight of grapes above and some juice is released. Ambient yeast starts to ferment juice. This fermentation produces CO2, which fills vessel and remaining intact grapes undergo carbonic maceration.
Intact grapes begin to split and release juice, grapes are pressed and yeast completes fermentation off skins.
Approach leads to better integration of aromas from intracellular fermentation with aromas from grape variety.
Results in wines with more fruitiness and softer mouthfeel than crushed fruit fermentations.
Sometimes used for fruity styles of Pinot Noir, Malbec, Tempranillo, Gamay and Carignan

Question 22

Describe the carbonic maceration technique used in red winemaking

Answer 22

Place whole, uncrushed bunches into vessel that is filled with CO2 to remove all oxygen. Causes intracellular fermentation to 2% alcohol. Grapes at bottom of vessel are crushed under weight of grapes above and some juice is released. Ambient yeast starts to ferment juice.
Grapes crushed in normal way or grape skins split and release their juice - normal fermentation starts.
Juice drained and grapes pressed. Free run juice and press juice usually blended. Yeast then completes fermentation off skins.
Extracts colour from grapes, but little tannin

Question 23

Describe the semi-carbonic maceration and alcoholic fermentation technique used in red winemaking

Answer 23

Whole berries/bunches with crushed grapes in fermenting vessel at start of fermentation. If whole bunches used, care needed that they are ripe. Whole berries/bunches are submerged by crushed grapes and kept away from oxygen. Intracellular fermentation takes place.
Whole berries/bunches progressively crushed during fermentation as cap is regularly punched down.
Thought to give a smoother texture and more vibrant and fresh primary aromas.
Used on wide range of varieties and wines of different qualities and prices.

Question 24

Describe fermentation temperatures for red winemaking

Answer 24

Red wines are usually fermented at warmer temps than white wines because it promotes more extraction. Warm temps can cause volatile fruity aromas to evaporate, so balance may need to be struck.
Fruit, low tannin wines - ferment at cool temps (20C)
Greater extraction, concentration and tannin structure to age - ferment slightly warmer at 30C
Temps can be monitored & controlled through fermentation to increase or reduce extraction of certain compounds (cooling ferment near the end to avoid excessive tannin extraction) and to promove a healthy ferment to dryness.

Question 25

Describe why winemakers may use post-fermentation maceration when making red wine

Answer 25

Some winemakers choose to leave wine macerating on grape skins for a few days to several weeks after fermentation. This further extracts tannins and encourages polymerization of tannins. The aim is to improve tannin structure and texture and wine’s ageing potential.
Usually done on premium and super-premium wines and very good to outstanding wines intended for ageing.
Takes up tank space and time. Not desirable for high-volume, inexpensive wines.

Question 26

Describe how pressing is carried out when making red wine

Answer 26

Pressing separates wine from skins when no more extraction desired. Red wine is better protected against effects of oxidation, so techniques like flushing machines with inert gas are less widely practiced.
Wines made by carbonic maceration, pressing may occur when fermenting must reaches 2% to produce a wine with medium colour and fruity flavours, but low in tannins.
Some red wines are pressed after a period of post-fermentation maceration to maximize tannin structure of wines.
Can also press right after or just before alcoholic fermentation - intention wine will be finish fermenting in barrels.

Question 27

Describe how malolactic conversion is used in the process of making red wine

Answer 27

MLC is routinely carried out for red wine. It is believed that MLC in oak barrels leads to better integration of oak characteristics during maturation.
MLC will decrease acidity and increase pH of wine.
Possible to adjust acidity of wine and reduce alcohol as necessary.

Question 28

Describe how maturation in wooden vessels is used in making red wine

Answer 28

Inexpensive red to be released soon after fermentation, for cost and logistical reasons will not undergo maturation in barrel.
Mid-market, premium and super-premium red wines - matured in oak vessels for 6 months to 2 years.
A proportion of new oak may be used if vanilla and clove flavours are desired to enhance the complexity of the wine.
Gentle oxidation occurs in small oak barrels - helps soften tannins and leads to development of tertiary aromas/flavours that can enhance complexity and quality. Tertiary characteristics develop over time as wine ages.

Question 29

Describe how lees ageing impacts red wine during maturation

Answer 29

Lees ageing for red wines can help soften tannins.
The possible disadvantage is reduced colour intensity.
Racking can be used to separate wine from lees, and control amount of lees present in vessel throughout maturation.
Not typical to keep gross lees nor to stir lees when making red wine.

Question 30

List the three methods used in rose winemaking

Answer 30

Direct Pressing
Short Maceration
Blending

Question 31

Describe how the direct pressing method works in rose winemaking

Answer 31

Black grapes are whole bunch pressed or destemmed (possibly crushed) and immediately pressed to minimize maceration.
Pneumatic presses typically used. Will often be flushed with inert gas to avoid oxidation of aromas and flavours and browning.
Then fermented just like white wine.
Produces roses that are the lightest in colour - depends on pressure used when pressing, the duration of pressing and how much press juice is used.
Wines made this way are called ‘vin gris’ and include lightest coloured Provence wines.Colour decreases during fermentation. Some predictive skill and experience required to achieve desired colour in final wine.

Question 32

Describe how the short maceration method works in rose winemaking

Answer 32

Rose made with a short period of pre-fermentation maceration before pressing. Must be protected with inert gas to avoid oxidation and threat from spoilage organisms. The longer the maceration, the more colour, flavour and tannin will be extracted. Maceration lasts a couple hours to a few days.
At end of maceration, juice is drained and grape skins may be gently pressed. Then fermented like white wine.
Produces roses deeper in colour and more pronounced in flavour than those from direct pressing.
Rose wines made this way include Spanish rose and Tavel rose.
Colour decreases during fermentation. Some predictive skill and experience required to achieve desired colour in final wine.

Question 33

Describe the saignee (bleeding) method used in making rose wines

Answer 33

Saignee method is where rose wine is made by short maceration is sometimes the by-product of must concentration in red wine production. Bleeding off some juice concentrates the remaining red wine must, which is used to enhance red wine.
This is a cost effective way to make rose.
Quality conscious producers can make good to outstanding quality rose and red wines using this technique.

Question 34

Describe a disadvantage of using the saignee (bleeding) method to produce rose wine

Answer 34

A disadvantage of using the saignee (bleeding) method of making rose wine is the black grapes have been grown and harvested as if they were going to make red wine. The juice that goes on to make rose wine may be less suitable for this latter style of wine.

Question 35

Describe how the blending method is used in rose winemaking

Answer 35

Blending involves mixing a small proportion of red wine with a much larger proportion of white wine. Imparts a pink colour while retaining aromas and flavours of white grape variety. Example is Sauvignon Rose.
This blending method of rose production is simple and cheap. Used for inexpensive wines.
Not allowed in many GI’s in EU. Exceptions are Champagne and Franciacorta.
In blending method, white and red wines are already fermented and shade of final rose is easier to control.

Question 36

Describe viticultural practices in rose winemaking

Answer 36

Usually desirable for rose wines to have medium to high levels of acidity, low to medium alcohol and fresh fruit flavours.
Grapes for good to outstanding quality rose wine tend to be grown:
- in cool/moderate regions or cool/moderate sites in warmer regions
- Common for yields to be higher than for reds, slowing down ripening and helping produce grapes with less concentration
- In warmer climates, grapes will be picked early to retain fresh fruit and acidity
Harvest time for grapes destined for rose wines is earlier. It helps retain acidity and obtain delicate, fresh red fruit characteristics.
Hand harvesting or machine harvesting can be used.
Hand harvesting - allows whole bunch pressing to gain juice that is low in colour.
Machine harvesting - beneficial in warm climates where harvesting at night means grapes can remain cool until they arrive at the winery.

Question 37

Describe common winemaking practices for rose winemaking

Answer 37

If made by short maceration, it is important that tannins are ripe to avoid extraction of green colours - less important for wines made by direct pressing.

Question 38

Describe pre-fermentation adjustments that may be made for rose wines

Answer 38

Pre-fermentation adjustments may be made to acidity or sugar levels as needed

Question 39

Describe how fermentation is done for making rose wines

Answer 39

Rose wines usually fermented at cool temps (12-16C) to promote production and retention of aroma compounds.
Stainless steel tanks often used as they are neutral and allow control of temps.
Oak vessels (new and old) occassionally used to provide more texture - more expensive than SS option
If oak vessels used (oak maturation), wine must have enough fruit concentration to not be overwhelmed by influence of oak.
New oak adds oak flavours. Used by a few producers who are creating a different style of rose - more suited to pairing with food.
Cultured yeast strains usually used - certain strains selected to enhance fruity flavours

Question 40

Describe how rose wines with residual sugar are made

Answer 40

Rose wine with residual sugar is usually made by stopping the fermentation before it reaches dryness or by blending a sweetening component with dry rose wine

Question 41

Describe how malolactic conversion is used in the production of rose wine

Answer 41

MLC is usually avoided. The buttery flavours aren’t wanted as they mask fresh fruit aromas.
Many rose wines designed to be refreshing, winemakers looking to retain acidity.

Question 42

Describe how lees ageing is used in the production of rose wine

Answer 42

Wine may have a short period on lees if winemaker wants to add texture and body to wine.
Usually done for mid-priced because of time spent in storage in winery and cost of barrels.

Question 43

Describe how fining and filtering is used in the production of rose wine

Answer 43

Appearance of rose wines is important part of their appeal. Majority of rose wines will be fined and filtered to increase clarity.
Sterile filtration is important for wines that have some residual sugar to avoid presence of unwanted microbes that could feed off sugar in the bottle.