Recurring Flaws in Arguments

Question 1

What kinds of flaws are indicated by absence of evidence questions?

Answer 1

• A lack of evidence for a phenomenon is taken as proof it does not exist
• A flaw in evidence that is attempting to prove a phenomenon is taken as evidence it does not exist

Question 2

What are the assumptions of appeals and attacks questions?

Answer 2

• They mistakenly assume something is true because an often dubious authority says so
• They mistakenly assume that a personal characteristic is relevant to the substance of that person’s argument
  
  • Evidence trumps character in supporting an argument, ALWAYS!

Question 3

What are the assumptions inherent in passages of the causal question?

Answer 3

• correlation equals causation
• there are no other causes
• Assumes causality is not reversed (conclusion first, then cause)

Question 4

What’s the problem in circular reasoning questions?

Answer 4

The conclusion merely restates the premises: it goes nowhere.

Question 5

What are the comparison flaw patterns?

Answer 5

• Assumes that two things are comparable in all relevant factors
• Assumes that two time periods are comparable in all relevant factors
• What is true of the part is true of the whole, and vice versa.

Question 5

Sometimes arguments look for flaws that involve assumptions that are either/or. What do these kinds of question say the author of the argument assumes?

Answer 5

The author assumes there are two of potentially several possible ways of doing something.

Question 7

What’s the flaw to be found in question making necessary assumptions?

• Depends/relies

Answer 7

• They assume something that is required to get a result is enough by itself to guarantee the result

Question 8

What is the fallacious assumption found in percentages/numbers questions?

Answer 8

• They assume that percentages or ratios are based on the same quantities.

Question 9

What’s the flaw in shifting meanings questions?

Answer 9

They switch the meaning of a term in the middle of an argument without acknowledging the shift:

“How can we afford to, says the mayor, but I say how can we afford not to?”

• The mayor is talking about the literal cost but the citizen is not: he is talking about the figurative cost
  
  • Look for literal and figurative linguistic differences and polysemic differences

Question 10

What’s the flaw in Sufficient questions?

Answer 10

• They assume that something guaranteed to get a result is a requirement of the result.

Question 11

What’s the difference between sufficient conditions and necessary conditions?

Answer 11

S→N, where

S = active, trigger, something that guarantees an outcome (by itself– it is at least enough, but there may be other possible things that could bring about the phenomenon, so it isn’t required).

N = passive, outcome; if not there, and outcome cannot occur. It is required. It has to be more than merely sufficient!