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PS2021 > reasoning > Flashcards

reasoning Flashcards

1
Q

Deductive reasoning

A

drawing conclusions that are logically sound presuming the premises are true - top down reasoning

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2
Q

inductive reasoning

A

drawing conclusions infering from the present evidence as to what is probable, not certain
(bottom up logic)

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3
Q

two types of reasoning

A

Inductive and deductive

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4
Q

define reasoning

A
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5
Q

conditional reasoning

A

Type of deductive reasoning

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6
Q

what is conditional reasoning

A

deals specifically in conditional statements “if then” reasoning under conditions that statements are true

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7
Q

conditional reasoning study question

A

If its raining freds hair gets wet, it is raining. Freds hair is wet?

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8
Q

conditional reasoning study question Fred result

A

98 % said yes (Marcus and Rips, 1979).

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9
Q

Conditional statements pt,2 W Fred

A

If its raining freds hair gets wet. Freds hair does not get wet, it is not raining

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10
Q

Conditional results pt,2 W Fred

A

52% agreed it was not raining (Marcus and Rips, 1979).

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11
Q

Conditional statements pt,3 W Fred

A

If it is raining, freds hair gets wet. Freds hair gets wet. It is raining.

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12
Q

Conditional results pt,3 W Fred

A

33% agreed it was a valid statement. (Marcus and Rips, 1979). It was invalid.

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13
Q

Conditional statements pt,4 W Fred

A

If it is raining, freds hair gets wet. It is not raining. Freds hair does not get wet.

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14
Q

Conditional results pt,4 W Fred

A

21% said it was valid. I was not. (Marcus and rips 1979)

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15
Q

What Fred shows.

A

Conditional reasoning can be tricky and misleading due to lack of external factors

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16
Q

Why do we fail? (conditional)

A

People can reason logically, but fail to understand logical formal tasks. (Braine 1978)

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17
Q

Why do we fail? (conditional)

A

People do not reason logically (woodworth 1935)

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18
Q

Why do we fail? (conditional)

A

We should not expect people to reason with formal logic (Oaksford 1994)

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19
Q

THEORIES OF DEDUCTIVE REASONING

A

-abstract rule theory
- mental models
- dual systems approach.

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20
Q

Abrstract rule theory (who)

A

Braine 1978

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21
Q

Abstract rule theory (what)

A

People use abstract generalised rules to guide their reasoning processes. these derive from past experiences

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22
Q

Abstract rule theory
Link

A

21% - freds hair (see prior flashcards).

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23
Q

Abstract rule theory - reducing comprehension era

A

Performance can improve with further clarity (reduces comprehension era Braine et al 1984).

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24
Q

Abstract rule theory - comprehension errors.

A

However such additional information can also impair performance on some tasks (Bryne 1989).

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25
Q

Abstract rule xplains for errors in judgement including

A

Overgeneralisation Misapplication of rules Confirmation bias

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26
Q

Mental model theory (who)

A

Johnson-Laird 1999

27
Q

Mental model theory (what)

A

Everyday comprehension processes are used on reasoning problems. These are created through mental models

28
Q

Mental model theory (what) (2)

A

reasoning involved examination of mental models and attempts to create alternative models.

29
Q

Mental model pratical objectives

A
30
Q

Mental model pratical Results

A
31
Q

principle of truth (who)

A

Johnson-Laird (1999) pg. 116

32
Q

principle of truth what (1)

A

Conclusions are drawn based on the initial model. People then try to falsify that conclusion by constructing alternative models.

33
Q

principle of truth what (2)

A

The creation of alternative models is very demanding on working memory.
THEREFORE “individuals … tend to construct mental models to represent explicitly only what is true…”

34
Q

Newstead et al 1999 theory

A

Mental models theory predicts that people will consider more conclusions in problems where they must create more mental models

35
Q

Newstead et al 1999 results

A

gave tasks permitted one or several mental models. No difference in number of conclusions considered

36
Q

mental models theory explains reasoning eras

A

cognitive load
sequential reasoning

37
Q

dual systems approach (who)

A

Evans (2003)

38
Q

dual systems approach

A

reasoning involves two systems
- fast automatic based on prior knowledge
- slow deliberate abstract based off logic

39
Q

dual systems approach example
condition 1

A

system one - buying new car
gut feeling
intuitive
appearance based
excited about how it looks and if its stylish

40
Q

dual systems approach example condition 2

A

system two
slow deliberate thinking
analysing cars specifications
comparing
long term costs and effects

41
Q

Wason and Shapiro 1971

A

Four cards, Manchester, leeds, train, car
rule; every time i go manny Its by train, each card has a location on one side and method of transport on the other. Select the cards you need to turn to decide wether its false.

42
Q

Wason and Shapiro 1968; 71.

A

Manny and car; 62%

43
Q

Wason and Shapiro AD47

A

Rule; if thers an A on one side of the car then there is a 4 on the other side
Task; each card has a letter and number. Select the cards in order to figure out rule

44
Q

Wason and Shapiro AD47 results

A

4% in original version.

45
Q

Cheng (1986)

A

40 hours of training does not improve perfromance

46
Q

Griggs and Cox; Wason and shapiro

A

Griggs and cox 1982; extremely difficult task even for intelligent subjects

47
Q

Griggs and cox experiment

A

4 cards; beer, coke, 22, 16. if a person is drinking beer they must be over 19.
turn cards to determine wether this is true.

47
Q

Griggs and cox experiment results

A

73% got it correct (beer and 16)

48
Q

Deductive reasoning summoning (long flashcard, no stress).

A

Determining the conclusions that must follow
given that certain statements are true
* People make characteristic errors in
deductive reasoning
* These are attributed to:
– Failure to understand the task
– Lack of logical approach
– Tendency towards probabilistic approach in line
with real-life reasoning

49
Q

Inductive reasoning

A

going beyond information provided to generalise conclusions - hypothesis testing.

50
Q

Inductive reasoning task

A

group of two - pA choose any three numbers
pB learn a rule and say if its true or false

51
Q

Inductive reasoning task rule

A

any 3 ascending numbers

52
Q

Inductive reasoning task purpose

A

the pattern is extraordinarily simple yet participants struggle to achieve it as theyre searching for a pattern - pattern reinforced by the name 2-4-6 task.

53
Q

Inductive reasoning task who?

A

Wason. 1960

54
Q

Inductive reasoning task original findings

A

21% on first statement of rule, 70% by the end.

55
Q

Wason quote - inductive

A

‘There is a peculiar sort of helplessness
about this kind of behavior which was
intensely interesting to watch but difficult
to evaluate’
– Wason (1966)

56
Q

Wason findings evaluation - inductive.

A

Wasons selection tasks reveals the tendancy to seek confimration and avoid discrimination. Causes overconfidence in judgements and resistance to change

57
Q

Eval on Wason - external study

A

Perfromance does not improve when instructed to use a disconfirmatory approach (Tweney et al 1980).

58
Q

Mynatt et al 1977

A

select a path to fire a particle across the screen. Then choose a pair of possible screens to test hypothesis.
Confirmation, disconformation and control groups. (Shoot a particle where you click but its misdirected and you have to figure out why and how to aim it).

59
Q

Mynatt results.

A

Confirm: 71%
disconfirm 70%
control 71%
people consistenly chose screens that would confirm their hypothesis. Bare in mind disconfirm group was trained in disconfirming.

60
Q

Mynatt results.

A

But 91% of participants changed to a correct
hypothesis when given disconfirmatory evidence

61
Q

Mitroff 1974

A

Nasa scientists (N=40) showed confirmation desires. They argued without it many good ideas would die out as a result or premature falsification. These were renouned scientists.

62
Q

Wasons 246 effect.

A

large area of correcrness but the subject focuses on a very small area of it.

63
Q

real world reasoning

A

shows the opposite of 246 effect as we have a larger rule when the actual rule is a lot smaller

PS2021 (6 decks)

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