Reading Part 2

Question 1

What is the one lesson that the author has learned from his research into marital relationships?

Answer 1

That a lasting marriage results from a couple’s ability to resolve conflicts that are inevitable in any relationship

Question 2

Which factors does John Gottman look at to classify a marriage?

Answer 2

Frequency of fights, the facial expressions and physiological responses of both partners during their confrontations, what they say to each other, and in what tone of voice they interact verbally.

Question 3

What are the three different styles of problem solving into which healthy marriages tend to settle?

Answer 3

[1] Validating: couples compromise often and calmly work out their
problems to mutual satisfaction as they arise; [2] volatile: conflict erupts often, resulting in
passionate disputes; [3] conflict avoiding: couples agree to disagree, rarely confronting their
differences head-on.

Question 4

According to the author, which of the three styles is best for a marriage’s future?

Answer 4

His research suggests all three are equally stable and bode equally well for the marriage’s future.

Question 5

What descriptor does Gottman use for “validator” couples?

Answer 5

In the midst of disagreement they still let their partners know that they consider his/her emotions valid, even if they don’t agree with them.

Question 6

What descriptors does Gottman use for “volatile” couples?

Answer 6

These couples see themselves as equals. They are independent sorts who believe that marriage should emphasize and strengthen their individuality. They are open with each other about their feelings—both positive and negative. These marriages tend to be passionate and exciting.

Question 7

What descriptors does Gottman use for “conflict-avoiding” couples?

Answer 7

Not much seems to happen in this type of marriage. They make light of their differences rather than resolving them. This type of couple flies in the face of conventional wisdom that links marital stability to skillfully talking
things out.

Question 8

What appears to be the key dynamic in what amounts to the emotional ecology of every
marriage?

Answer 8

The balance between negativity and positivity

Question 9

What really separates contented couples from those in deep marital misery?

Answer 9

A healthy balance between their positive and negative feelings and actions toward each other.

Question 10

What is the “magic ratio” of positive to negative that likely results in a stable marriage over time?

Answer 10

5 to 1—five times as much positive feeling and interaction as there is negative.

Question 11

How do unhappy marriages resemble each other?

Answer 11

They follow the same, specific downward spiral before coming to a sad end.

Question 12

What are the four cascades or “Four Horsemen” a couple hit as they tumble down the marital
rapids?

Answer 12

[1] Criticism,
[2] contempt,
[3] defensiveness, and
[4] stonewalling.

Question 13

What does criticism involve?

Answer 13

Attacking someone’s personality or character rather than a specific behavior, usually with blame

Question 14

What are the two common types of criticisms mentioned in the article?

Answer 14

[1] “Kitchen sinking” and

[2] accusing your partner of betraying you, of being untrustworthy

Question 15

What is a telltale sign that you’ve slipped from complaining to criticizing?

Answer 15

Using global phrases like “you never” or “you always”

Question 16

What separates contempt from criticism?

Answer 16

The intention to insult and psychologically abuse your

partner.

Question 17

What are some common signs of expressing contempt?

Answer 17

Insults and name calling, hostile humor, mockery, and body language [sneering, rolling eyes, curling your upper lip]

Question 18

What are the signs of defensiveness?

Answer 18

Denying responsibility, making excuses, disagreeing with negative mind-reading, cross-complaining, and repeating yourself.

Question 19

What is the first step toward breaking out of defensiveness?

Answer 19

To no longer see your partner’s words as an attack but as information that is being strongly expressed.

Question 20

What does stonewalling convey?

Answer 20

Disapproval, icy distance, and smugness.

Question 21

Are the “four horsemen” the end of the line? Why or why not?

Answer 21

They are not. It is only after they turn a relationship sour that the ultimate danger arises and only if your inner thoughts go unchallenged are you likely to topple down the final marital cascade. If you learn to recognize
what is happening to your marriage, you can still develop the tools you need to regain control of
it.

Question 22

What three characteristics of sibling relationships stand out among the findings of systematic
research?

Answer 22

[1] Sibling relationships are—from infancy through adolescence—notable for their emotional power and for the uninhibited expression of these emotions,
[2] Intimacy—most children spend more time in interaction with siblings than with parents; therefore, this intimacy can be a source of great support or conflict.
[3] There is a great range of individual differences,
evident from early infancy through to adolescence.)

Question 23

Why should some siblings get along so well and be important sources of support and comfort for
one another, while others are so hostile?

Answer 23

(In addition to the family constellation variables, the
personality characteristics of individual children, the quality of relationships within the family, and
the social adversities or risks faced by the family all play an important role in individual differences in sibling relationships.)

Question 24

What are personality and temperamental characteristics more clearly related to? Why?

Answer 24

They are more clearly related to conflict in the sibling relationship rather than in the positive aspects of the
relationship possibly due to problems of measuring the positive features, which tend to be less evident when parents are present, whereas conflict between siblings is all too evident.

Question 25

What evidence is there for the significance of gender and age gap for individual differences?

Answer 25

For young children, the findings are inconsistent. During middle childhood, it appears that gender may increase in importance [e.g., boys become increasingly less likely to report warmth and intimacy in their relationships with their siblings]. Among older adults, relationships with sisters appear to be particularly important.

Question 26

How far and in what ways are individual differences in sibling relationships linked to the children’s
relationships with their parents or to the quality of the parents’ own relationships with each other?

Answer 26

There is evidence that the security of young children’s attachments to their parents is correlated
with individual differences in the quality of later sibling relationships. Other evidence indicates that
intense, supportive sibling relationships can develop in families in which the parent-child
relationships are distant or uninvolved. There is also consistent evidence that more conflicted,
hostile sibling relationships are associated with differential relations between parents and their
various children. Finally, changes in parent-child relationships that accompany the arrival of a
new sibling are linked to the quality of the relationship that develops between the siblings.

Question 27

How does developmental change impact the sibling relationship?

Answer 27

(During the preschool years, the younger siblings—in a dyad—play an increasingly active role in the relationship, as their powers of understanding and communicative skills develop. They begin to imitate more games, and their ability to cooperate makes them more interesting companions in play for their older
siblings. However, changes in the balance of power between siblings appear as they reach middle childhood, thus, the relationship becomes more egalitarian. During adolescence, there tends to be a decrease in the warmth that siblings feel and express toward each other.

Question 28

Do the striking individual differences in sibling relationships—evident in early childhood—show
continuity over time? Explain.

Answer 28

There is evidence for considerable stability in children’s behavior and feelings toward their siblings, particularly for the older siblings during the period from 5 years
to 12–13 years of age. However, many sibling pairs also changed in the relative friendliness or hostility that they felt toward each other, depending on a variety of life events.

Question 29

Which two particular domains of development have been studied in relation to children’s experiences with their siblings?

Answer 29

Children’s ability to adjust and their social understanding.

Question 30

What evidence is presented for the impact of associations between the quality of siblings’
relationships and children’s ability to adjust?

Answer 30

There are associations between the quality of
siblings’ relationships and both internalizing and externalizing behavior found contemporaneously
and over time.

Question 31

What two sets of evidence indicate indirect effects involving siblings?

Answer 31

Differential parent-child relationships and the impact of the arrival of a sibling.

Question 32

What outcome was presented for a preschool-aged sibling when both the mother and father
disciplined him more than his younger sibling?

Answer 32

The preschool aged sibling showed more

internalizing and externalizing symptoms.

Question 33

What has the birth of a sibling been consistently linked to?

Answer 33

Increased problems of adjustment in firstborn children, disturbance in bodily functions, withdrawal, aggressiveness, dependency, and anxiety.

Question 34

What parallel changes in the interactions between the “displaced” older sibling and his parents correlate with changes in children’s adjustment that follow the arrival of a sibling?

Answer 34

There is a notable increase in critical negative behavior from mothers, an increase in demanding difficult
firstborn behavior to mothers, and a decrease in positive joint activities shared by parents and
firstborn.

Question 35

How are siblings viewed as a source of support?

Answer 35

It seems that both offering comfort to and receiving comfort from a sibling are associated with benefits for children. For example, children growing up in disharmonious homes have fewer problems if they have a good sibling relationship.

Question 36

What evidence is there that young preschool children with siblings have more sophisticated inner states and social behaviors?

Answer 36

In the context of the emotional drama and the familiarity of interactions with siblings, they reveal remarkable powers of manipulating others’ emotions, of anticipating intentions, and of understanding the significance of inner states for human action. Their ability to tease, deceive, manage conflict by anticipating the other’s intentions and perspective, share an imaginative work in joint pretend play, and engage in conversations about why people behave the way they do, with reference to mental states as causes and consequences of action, reflect a growing sophistication about inner states and social behavior

Question 37

How can the lack of consistency across sibling and peer relationships be interpreted?

Answer 37

Compensatory mechanisms could be invoked and/or the experiences of conflict and competitive interactions with siblings may foster children’s capacities in social understanding.

Question 38

In which ways do family experiences influence individual development?

Answer 38

The aspects of family life that have been seen as key influences on children’s development, such as mothers’ and fathers’ educational and occupational level, parents’ mental health and the quality of their spousal relationship, the neighborhood in which the family lives, and the social adversities faced by the family are all shared by siblings. Yet, experiences within the family differ markedly for siblings due to differences in personality, adjustment, and psychopathology, and are key to their
developmental differences.)

Question 39

How can we gain a more powerful new perspective in areas of the growth of social understanding
and social competence, in research on family influences on adjustment, on the nature and
individual differences in peer relations, and on the role of genetics in the development of
individual differences?

Answer 39

By including full, half, and step-siblings in future research

Question 40

How did Freud regard make-believe play?

Why do young children reverse roles in make-believe play?

Answer 40

-A form of pleasurable wish fulfillment that allows
children to act out uncertainties, anxieties, and hoped-for outcomes.
-Young children reverse roles so that the child is in command and can compensate for unpleasant happenings.

Question 41

How did Erikson regard make-believe play?

Why do young children reverse roles in make-believe play?

Answer 41

-Children draw on fantasy play to find out about
themselves and their social world.
-Through observing and emulating admired adult figures, preschoolers internalize social norms
and gain a sense of their future, of what they can become, and of how they can contribute to
society

Question 42

What is Piaget best known for in regard to make-believe play?
What cognitive advancement do young children strengthen
through pretending?

Answer 42

• Piaget is best known for stressing the symbolic nature of make-believe.
• Pretending is a vital means of mentally representing the child’s world. This skill, along with gestures, language, and drawings, develops rapidly in early childhood.

Question 43

Does make-believe play advance children’s development according to Piaget? Why or why not?

Answer 43

Piaget was convinced that by itself, make-believe play does little to advance children’s development. Rather, children merely exercise playfully the symbols they have acquired in other contexts.

Question 44

How did Vygotsky view make-believe play? What did Vygotsky mean when he said that make believe play creates a “zone” in which the child is “a head taller than himself”?

Answer 44

Vygotsky viewed make-believe play as crucial in children’s learning. Vygotsky meant that play provides the roles, rules, and scenarios that enable children to concentrate at a much higher level than they typically
do in non-pretend contexts.

Question 45

What are the two distinctive features of make-believe play that distinguish it from other childhood
activities?

Answer 45

[1] The creation of imaginary situations in play helps children separate internal ideas from the objects and events for which they stand, and
[2] make-believe play is rule-based. It is
inspired by experiences in their families and communities, and children continually devise and
follow social rules in imaginary situations

Question 46

How does make-believe play help preschoolers overcome impulsive action?

Answer 46

Vygotsky claims that make-believe play helps preschoolers conquer their impulses by granting the child repeated practice “in acting independently of what he sees.”

Question 47

How does make-believe play help preschoolers acquire and enact the rules of social life?

Answer 47

According to Vygotsky, children’s greatest self-control occurs during make-believe play. They achieve their maximum display of willpower when, at their own initiative, they renounce a momentary attraction in favor of rule-governed behavior.

Question 48

How did Vygotsky describe the evolution of play?

Answer 48

From make-believe play to organized games with rules.

Question 49

Which diverse array of specific cognitive and social skills does Berk name as contributors to
overcoming impulsive action and acquiring and enacting the rules of social life?

Answer 49

Attention, memory, language and literacy, hypothetical reasoning, distinguishing appearance from reality,
understanding the mind and its many activities, self-regulation, and imagination and creativity.

Question 50

What six social functions and consequences of adult-child play does Berk list?

Answer 50

Teaching, enlivening daily routines, diffusing conflict, expressing and regulating emotion, influencing
another’s social behavior, and having fun.

Question 51

According to Berk, how should parents, caregivers, and teachers go about engaging young children in make-believe play?

Answer 51

Adult participation in make-believe play works best when it responds to, guides, and builds on the child’s behaviors with demonstrations and suggestions.

Question 52

What three suggestions does Berk make that can help parents and teachers select strategies that foster more mature social behavior?

Answer 52

[1] Intervene soon enough to prevent peer difficulties from escalating, thereby avoiding highly intrusive intervention tactics;
[2] focus on developing the skills
of each child, not just on quelling disturbances; and
[3] think in terms of the support that is
necessary, without taking over social responsibilities that children can assume on their own.

Question 53

Why does Berk say that the physical context of children’s play is important?

Answer 53

It shapes play themes and opportunities to interact with age mates. It can have a profound impact on what
children learn.

Question 54

What should play materials capitalize on?

Answer 54

Toys and other props should capitalize on children’s
current make-believe capacities while gently spurring children forward, toward a wider range of themes, roles, characters, and increasingly intricate story lines.

Question 55

What are the changing needs for make-believe and game materials from toddlerhood into the primary grades?

Answer 55

15 months–2 years: a small selection of realistic-looking toys to support their beginning capacity to pretend; 2–3 years: a wider array of make-believe materials; 3–5 years: increasingly varied and flexible props, books and videos, play scenes, games; 6–8 years: basic strategy games and objects to create replicas of the world around them.

Question 56

What impact does the play environment have on the maturity and diversity of themes in children’s
make-believe play?

Answer 56

When playthings are short in supply, preschoolers’ conflicts increase; the arrangement of play areas reinforces gender distinctions; play spaces often promote attitudes and practices of the surrounding culture.

Question 57

What three questions does Berk suggest parents consider when deciding to purchase a new toy
for their child?

Answer 57

What activities will this toy inspire? What values will the activities teach? What social rules will my child learn to follow?

Question 58

How might we safeguard children’s learning and enthusiasm according to Berk?

Answer 58

To safeguard children’s learning and enthusiasm, make-believe play rather than organized sports is best for
preschoolers. When children are ready for game play, permitting them to select sports they enjoy,
to progress at their own pace, and to participate in decisions about team rules preserves cooperation, fair play, and willingness to follow social rules.

Question 59

Which three interrelated themes are applications of sociocultural theory mentioned by Berk?

Answer 59

Teaching in the “zone,” classrooms rich with dialogue, and abundant literacy activities.

Question 60

In this chapter, Berk describes Vygotsky’s views of teaching and learning. What benefits are
gained from teaching in the “zone”? What is the “zone”?

Answer 60

Vygotsky argued that teaching in the “zone” leads to new knowledge and skills; it permits children to attain new heights in self regulation. The “zone” is the range of tasks that the child cannot yet master independently but
can accomplish by collaborating with more expert partners.

Question 61

In what way does classroom dialogue differ from everyday conversation?

Answer 61

In settings where learning is the primary goal of everything that happens, language serves not just as a means of communication but also as an object of reflection.

Question 62

How are children empowered by an abundance of literacy activities?

Answer 62

(As children become more
skilled at and talk about reading, writing, math, and other forms of notation, they develop the
capacity to consciously manipulate and control the symbol systems of their culture. This makes
them much better communicators—with others and themselves.

Question 63

Describe the type of activities that create “zones”?

Answer 63

Collaboration and dialogue primarily; whole class activities, secondary.

Question 64

According to Berk, how are activity centers best designed?

Answer 64

Centers are best designed and equipped so limits are not placed on what children can learn from them.

Question 65

What are extended projects, what topics should they address, and how should they be addressed?

Answer 65

Extended projects are in-depth studies of special topics. Always address a topic related to children’s everyday experiences, allowing for integration of a range of subject areas, and involve the children in the “fieldwork.”

Question 66

Identify and define the two kinds of teacher-child dialogues Berk discusses in this chapter.

Answer 66

First, reciprocal teaching, which is an interactive teaching method in which a teacher and two to four
children form a collaborative learning group and take turns leading a discussion aimed at helping children understand text passages. As group members engage in dialogue, they flexibly apply four strategies: questioning, summarizing, clarifying, and predicting. The second kind of dialogue is inquiry in mathematics, which involves students meeting in small groups to work problems and explain their personally-invented procedures to one another, rather than simply memorizing standard procedures.

Question 67

What do children spend much of their time doing in Vygotsky-inspired classrooms, according to
Berk?

Answer 67

Children spend much time engaged in joint activities with classmates, who assist them in mastering tasks within their “zones.”

Question 68

In order to adapt communication so that it helps a peer partner, what three things must a teacher do?

Answer 68

Teachers must model effective dialogue, help children verbalize their thinking, and encourage them to comprehend, respect, and build on their classmates’ ideas and opinions.

Question 69

What does Berk say influences the ease with which children engage in cooperative learning?

Answer 69

Cultural values and practices.

Question 70

What are the benefits of belonging to a mixed-age classroom?

Answer 70

Mixed-age grouping expands the heterogeneity of children in the same class, creating conditions that support Vygotsky’s vision of more competent children spurring the development of their less advanced peers. Among preschoolers, the play of younger children is more cognitively and socially advanced; self esteem
and attitudes toward school are more positive, and older children practice nurturing and help giving—important life skills.

Question 71

What is dynamic assessment and what is its goal?

Answer 71

Dynamic assessment is a general, ongoing
assessment approach that introduces purposeful teaching into testing situations. The goal of this
type of assessment is to find out what the child can attain with scaffolding.

Question 72

What is the basic assumption of the community-of-learners model? Who is considered a
“learner”?

Answer 72

This model assumes that each person has a different area of expertise that can help other community members, depending on the task at hand. Both adults and children are regarded as learners—all collaborate and develop in their respective roles.

Question 73

How does Berk say (a) teacher-parent and (b) teacher-school partnerships are formed?

Answer 73

[a] Parents and teachers communicate often, keeping each other informed of children’s reactions
and progress at home and at school. Teachers suggest ways that parents can foster children’slearning. They invite parents to visit and participate in their child’s classroom.
[b] Teachers need support and scaffolding to carry out the complex tasks of effective teaching and to become more expert at their work. Administrators, education specialists, and teachers join forces.

Question 74

What are the five common elements of successful intervention?

Answer 74

(a) produces effects on multiple risk factors, such as ineffective parenting or child behavior;
(b) includes ecological, multiple-setting designs, providing support in multiple settings, such as peer groups, schools, and families;
(c) involves urban, low-income populations;
(d) continues for at least 2 years; and
(e) is implemented during the child’s first 5 years of life

Question 75

Why might parent and family interventions be justified?

Answer 75

-First, parents are central to children’s development, but they lack natural competence and need direction. -Second, traditional parenting practices may not be effective and need
revising in light of scientific findings.
-Third, there is a need to reinstitute traditional family structures and practices that have been shown to shore up families in light of contemporary family disarray. –Fourth, families need support in coping with the stressors of modern life (e.g., financial, medical, child-rearing concerns, drugs, and negative peer influences).

Question 76

According to Vygotsky, what is the most debilitating consequence of a physical or mental disability?

Answer 76

The most debilitating consequence is its implications for the child’s participation in culturally meaningful activities.

Question 77

What are the two deficits that hinder children with disabilities from being integrated into social life
to the fullest extent possible?

Answer 77

First, the disability itself; and second, a cultural deficit—their ability to learn the culturally valued ways of thinking and behaving is impaired.

Question 78

Although many deficits and disabilities cannot be overcome, how are parents more likely to
improve their child’s situation?

Answer 78

By providing the child with valuable social experiences.

Question 79

How can children with sensory deficits meet their burning desire to communicate?

Answer 79

By establishing alternative avenues for social connection, such as Braille or sign language.

Question 80

In considering Helen Keller’s story, how did Helen’s gifted teacher, Anne, teach Helen?

Answer 80

Anne insisted that Helen contribute to her own progress. Rather than sitting Helen down for formal
instruction, Anne permitted her to move freely among objects that interested her. Most lessons
took place outside, largely in the context of play.

Question 81

In which two crucial interrelated ways does minimal or absent vision alter the child’s experiences?

Answer 81

[1] exploration and understanding of space;

[2] social relationships

Question 82

According to Vygotsky, how should the education of a blind child be organized?

Answer 82

“The education of a blind child must be organized on the same terms as the education of any child capable of
normal development. …The main source from which this development draws its contents is the same for both—language.”

Question 83

What are some of the different techniques used to help blind babies become aware of their physical and social surroundings? How are they used?

Answer 83

Combining touch and sound to create heightened sensory input helps blind babies. For example, the parent can hold, touch, and bring the baby’s hands to his or her face while talking or singing. Parents may also help by encouraging manipulation of objects that make sounds. In addition, parents must take special care to talk about objects the child is attending to in appropriately descriptive ways. Another technique would be to use many repetitions and consistently respond to the child’s efforts to make physical and social contact.

Question 84

When do blind children become proficient at investigating objects with their hands?

Answer 84

Usually not until 4 to 6 years of age.

Question 85

What hampers blind children in make-believe play? How can this obstacle be overcome?

Answer 85

Make believe play is hampered by delays in other areas, including motor skills, general knowledge, and language. It can be overcome by adult involvement in play. This must extend well beyond the age at which sighted children have turned toward play with peers. Rich and varied opportunities for adult-supported play can help overcome blind children’s restricted experiences.

Question 86

How involved are adults in sociodramatic play between blind children and their peers?

Answer 86

Because blind children often lack the manipulative, language, and social skills to participate in such play,
parents and teachers need to provide assistance so that sighted playmates do not become frustrated and stop playing.

Question 87

What deficits are blind children at risk for? What can parents and teachers do to help?

Answer 87

They are at risk for severe deficits in everyday physical and social experiences. Parents and teachers must
ensure that blind children collaborate with adults and peers in a diverse array of culturally valued activities, including self-care and simple chores, problem solving tasks, narrative conversation, storybook reading, physical, imaginative, and game play, and “hands-on,” richly narrated excursions in the neighborhood and community.

Question 88

Compare the communication of deaf children of deaf parents with deaf children of hearing
parents.

Answer 88

pp. 157–159 in Berk text.

Question 89

What effect did Vygotsky observe that was more devastating to the child than the original defect?

Answer 89

the consequences for the child’s integration into social life

Question 90

Many hearing parents worry that a child who acquires sign language as his or her native language will remain isolated from the larger world of hearing people. Should lip reading and speaking rather than signing be the deaf child’s major language?

Answer 90

The answer is not which system the deaf child should acquire but which one should be given priority as the child’s first language.

Question 91

What interventions should hearing parents of deaf children likely need to make?

Answer 91

Hearing parents need extensive coaching and assistance in communicating with a deaf son or daughter from
infancy on. Even when their signing fluency remains limited, parents who start to acquire sign
language soon after they learn of their child’s deafness can become skilled enough to help their
child. The more extensive the signing input, the more rapid the child’s language progress. Hearing parents must also change some of their communication habits, making sure to sign or speak in the child’s visual field and to focus and comment on objects sequentially rather than
simultaneously.

Question 92

What benefits do deaf children reap when they are fluent in signing and later master the spoken
code?

Answer 92

They are able to form ties with both deaf and hearing communities, and at the same time they become bilingual.

Question 93

What is the most prevalent developmental disorder of childhood?

Answer 93

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder [ADHD]

Question 94

Statistically speaking, how many American school-age children have ADHD?

Answer 94

About 2 million American school-age children have ADHD. On average, one or two in every elementary school
classroom.

Question 95

What difficulties do children with ADHD experience?

Answer 95

Poorly regulated behavior is biologically based, central to the disorder, and often lifelong, causing grave relationship difficulties and placing the child at risk for school failure, antisocial behavior, unintentional injuries, and
vocational and marital problems in adulthood.

Question 96

What are the symptoms of ADHD?

Answer 96

Symptoms include: great difficulty sustaining attention;
inability to stay focused on a task or play activity that requires mental effort for more than a few minutes; constant attraction to nearby stimulating, low-effort activities that seem like more fun; often impulsive; ignore social rules; interrupt others; lash out with hostility when frustrated; excessive motor activity; tendency to run, climb, and play in inappropriate situations; constantly talk and make sounds; fidget and tap their pencils; shake their legs; manipulate objects unrelated to the task at hand.

Question 97

In order to diagnose ADHD, what factors must be taken into account?

Answer 97

These symptoms of inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity must have appeared before age 7—they must have emerged as an early and persistent problem. They must also be pervasive—evident in at least two settings, such as home and school—and contribute to academic and social difficulties. Also, the child’s disorganized behavior must be inconsistent with his or her age.

Question 98

According to research, what is the origin of ADHD?

Answer 98

Research indicates that heredity plays a major role in ADHD.

Question 99

Exactly what might individuals with ADHD inherit?

Answer 99

Problems in brain functioning underlie this disorder. Several genes that affect neurotransmitters and hormone levels have been implicated in ADHD. The disorder is also linked to reduced electrical activity and blood flow in the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex. Children with ADHD have a smaller corpus callosum. The cerebellum is also smaller in ADHD children.

Question 100

What environmental factors are linked to ADHD?

Answer 100

home backgrounds in which marriages are

unhappy and family stress is high

Question 101

What other disorders do half of diagnosed ADHD children also show symptoms of?

Answer 101

oppositional defiant disorder [ODD] and conduct disorder [CD]

Question 102

What factors are often at the heart of these serious accompanying disorders?

Answer 102

Maladaptive parenting triggered by the combination of a difficult child, parental traits, and a disrupted home life.

Question 103

Which teratogens are linked to ADHD?

Answer 103

maternal use of illegal drugs, alcohol, or cigarettes during

pregnancy

Question 104

What experiences do children with ADHD benefit from?

Answer 104

They benefit from the same family and
school experiences that foster higher forms of thinking and culturally valued attitudes and skills in
all children.

Question 105

What is the major goal of intervention with ADHD children?

Answer 105

The main goal should be to repair damaged bonds with adults, especially parents, thereby paving the way for successful, fulfilling adult-child dialogues which are crucial to development.

Question 106

According to research, what is the most effective intervention approach for children with ADHD?

Answer 106

Intervention is multifaceted. Pediatricians and psychologists can try to modify children’s deficient
impulse control directly, through medication therapy and through changing aspects of their environments to better suit their limited attention spans and high need for activity. At the same time, adults must work to transform their negative, intrusive reactions to the child’s impulsivestyle—a goal far easier to attain once the child’s extreme behavior is reduced.

Question 107

What convincing rationale does Vygotsky’s theory provide for parents and teachers of disabled children?

Answer 107

To form strong, supportive, trustful relationships.

Question 108

What factors have been attributed to the dramatic increase in marital dissolution from the mid
19th century until now?

Answer 108

the increasing economic independence of women, declining earnings among men without college degrees, rising expectations for personal fulfillment from marriage,
greater social acceptance of divorce

Question 109

Which assumption does the largest number of studies begin with?

Answer 109

Many studies have been conducted on the assumption that marital disruption is a stressful life transition to which adults and children must adjust.

Question 110

Which frameworks dominated the divorce literature?

Answer 110

stress frameworks

Question 111

What four things does the Divorce-Stress-Adjustment perspective as a conceptual model provide?

Answer 111

(1) integrates the assumptions found in many discrete pieces of research; (2) helps summarize and organize specific research findings from the 1990s; (3) provides a guide for future research on divorce; (4) is useful because it can be applied to children as well as adults

Question 112

How does the Divorce-Stress-Adjustment perspective view marital discord?

Answer 112

as a process that begins while the couple lives together and ends long after the legal divorce is concluded

Question 113

In which ways does legal divorce not necessarily bring an end to the stress associated with an
unhappy marriage?

Answer 113

During the time in which the marriage is ending, and in the immediate post divorce period, new events and processes (mediators) emerge that have the potential to affect people’s emotions, behavior, and health.

Question 114

What value do moderators/protective factors serve?

Answer 114

Protective factors act like shock absorbers and weaken the links between divorce-related events and people’s experience of stress, hence the extent to which divorce is followed by negative emotional, behavioral, or health outcomes.

Question 115

What are the two contrary models that are embedded within the Divorce-Stress-Adjustment perspective?

Answer 115

crises model; chronic strain

Question 116

What are the general assumptions, as applied to adults, according to the selection perspective?

Answer 116

Certain individuals possess problematic personal and social characteristics that not only predispose them to divorce, but also lead them to score low on indicators of well-being after the marriage ends. Consequently, the adjustment problems frequently observed among divorced people might be present early in the marriage or might predate the marriage. People bring traits to marriage that increase the risk of divorce.

Question 117

What are the general assumptions, as applied to children, according to the selection perspective?

Answer 117

At least some child problems observed following divorce are present during the marriage—an
assumption consistent with several longitudinal studies.)

Question 118

According to a large number of studies published during the 1990s, what do divorced individuals, compared with married individuals, experience?

Answer 118

They experience lower levels of psychological well-being, including lower happiness, more symptoms of psychological distress, and poorer selfconcepts. Compared with married individuals, divorced individuals also have more health problems and a greater risk of mortality. Divorced individuals report more social isolation, less satisfying sex lives, more negative life events, a lower standard of living, possession of less
wealth, and greater economic hardship than married individuals. Divorce is associated with more difficulties in raising children, less authoritative parenting, and greater parental role strain among noncustodial—as well as—custodial parents. The general conclusion that emerges from studies published in the 1990s? The divorced are worse off than the married in multiple ways.

Question 119

Does divorce lower people’s well-being, or are poorly functioning people especially likely to divorce?

Answer 119

Longitudinal studies show that people who make the transition from marriage to divorce report an increase in symptoms of depression, an increase in alcohol use, and decreases in happiness, mastery, and self-acceptance.

Question 120

In which two ways can the notion of divorce causation and a degree of selection be combined?

Answer 120

First, some individuals might be prone to psychological or interpersonal problems prior to divorce but exhibit additional problems following divorce. Second, some individuals might have longstanding problems that disrupt the marriage, whereas others might be relatively symptom-free until confronted with the stress of marital dissolution.

Question 121

According to the research presented in this article, does divorce represent a temporary crisis to
which most individuals adapt?

Answer 121

Several studies found that unhappiness, distress, depression, alcohol consumption, and health problems had largely subsided two or three years after
separation—a result that supports the crisis model.

Question 122

According to the research presented in this article, does divorce represent a source of chronic strains that persists indefinitely?

Answer 122

Several other studies failed to find improvements in people’s functioning during the time following a divorce, unless they remarried.

Question 123

With regards to parenting, what is poor adjustment associated with?

Answer 123

For custodial mothers it is associated with difficulty in finding child care, children’s misbehavior, and the number of children in the household. Loss of contact with children is associated with increased distress among noncustodial fathers. Poor adjustment is associated with conflict between ex-spouses, lack of
emotional support from others, low income, and the number and severity of stressful life changes following divorce. Difficulties associated with solo parenting, continuing discord with the former spouse, decline in emotional support, economic hardship, and other stressful life events account for much of the gap in well-being between divorced and married adults.

Question 124

What is positive adjustment associated with?

Answer 124

(With regard to resources, positive adjustment
among divorced individuals is associated with education, employment, and large networks of
supportive kin and friends. Support from a new partner appears to be especially beneficial, because studies consistently show that adjustment is higher among divorced individuals who have formed a new romantic relationship or have remarried. Remarriage also improves people’s standard of living and accumulation of wealth.

Question 125

How can having a large network of friends and kin decrease distress?

Answer 125

Having someone to confide in decreases distress

Question 126

How can having a large network of friends and kin increase distress?

Answer 126

(Receiving material assistance, such as money or housing, increases distress. But support also might come with costs such as feelings of inadequacy or indebtedness on the part of the receiver. Receiving help
with services, finances, or information was associated with lower distress; receiving these forms of assistance in conjunction with advice, however, was associated with higher distress. These findings suggest that aid might be more (rather than less) stressful when it comes with strings attached.

Question 127

How does the manner in which people cognitively appraise the divorce affect levels of stress?

Answer 127

People who strongly believed that marriage is a lifelong commitment reported especially high levels of distress following divorce. Adjustment among these individuals might have been difficult because they were troubled by the moral contradiction involved in seeing their own marriages end. Divorce adjustment was easier for women who were not heavily invested in their marital
identity. Individuals who initiate divorce, compared with those who do not want the marriage to end, tend to be better adjusted in the post-divorce period. Individuals who report a large number of problems during the marriage tend to function relatively well in the post-divorce period. For individuals who are very distressed during the marriage, divorce appears to decrease symptoms of depression. Initiators of divorce and their partners are often on different trajectories of divorce
adjustment. People who initiate divorce might experience distress, but they do this mainly prior to,
rather than following, marital dissolution.

Question 128

Are the consequences of divorce more debilitating for women or men?

Answer 128

Some studies suggest
that the effects of marital disruption on psychological well-being are stronger for women than
men. In contrast, other studies show that marital disruption is more debilitating for the
psychological well-being and health of men than women. These studies do not provide evidence
that one gender is more vulnerable than the other, overall, following divorce. The main exception
to the conclusion involves economic well-being. Research is consistent in showing that the
economic consequences of divorce are greater for women than for men.

Question 129

How do children from divorced and two-parent families compare?

Answer 129

Children from divorced families scored significantly lower on a variety of outcomes, including academic achievement, conduct, psychological adjustments, self-concept, and social competence. Children with divorced parents scored lower than children with continuously married parents on measures of academic success,
psychological adjustment, self-concept, social competence, and long-term health.

Question 130

According to longitudinal studies, how did children from maritally disrupted families fare?

Answer 130

They had more post-divorce behavior problems than children from nondisrupted families. Furthermore,
several longitudinal studies showed that many post-divorce child problems could not be traced to
a point in time prior to the divorce. Differences in behavior and well-being between children from
divorced and nondivorced families continued to be significant even after controlling for children’s
predivorce levels of behavior problems. Parental divorce was followed by an increase in children’s behavior problems above predivorce levels. With regard to possible genetic influence, one study found that the association between parental divorce and child problems was similar for adopted and biological children. Parental divorce predicted offspring depression in adulthood even with genetic resemblance controlled statistically. Even if predivorce family factors (including genetic factors) predispose children to certain emotional and behavioral problems, divorce itself
brings about new conditions that exacerbate these differences. Studies found that the gap in psychological well-being between offspring from divorced and nondivorced families grew larger— not smaller—with the passage of time. Consistent with the finding, a large number of studies have demonstrated that parental divorce is a risk factor for multiple problems in adulthood, including low socioeconomic attainment, poor subjective well-being, increased marital problems, and a greater likelihood of seeing one’s own marriage(s) end in divorce.

Question 131

Why might these problems persist into adulthood?

Answer 131

(First, economic hardship due to parental divorce might lead some children to abandon plans to attend college, resulting in lower occupational attainment and wages throughout adulthood. Other offspring who were exposed to poor parental models of interpersonal behavior might have difficulty forming stable, satisfying intimate relationships as young adults. These considerations suggest that even if some children
show improvements in functioning a year or two after marital disruption, the delayed effects of divorce might appear only when offspring have reached young adulthood.

Question 132

How do divorced custodial parents compare with married parents according to a number of studies?

Answer 132

A number of studies indicated that divorced custodial parents, compared with married parents, invest less time, are less supportive, have fewer rules, dispense harsher discipline, provide less supervision, and engage in more conflict with their children.

Question 133

What is one of the best predictors of children’s behavior and well-being?

Answer 133

the quality of parental functioning

Question 134

Either a conflicted relationship with the custodial parent or inept parenting on the part of the custodial parent is linked with a variety of negative child outcomes, such as [name five]:

Answer 134

lower academic achievement, internalizing problems, externalizing problems, reduced self-esteem, and
poorer social competence

Question 135

According to Amato and Gilbreth (1999), what consistently predicted children’s higher academic
achievement and lower internalizing and externalizing problems?

Answer 135

authoritative parenting on the part of noncustodial fathers

Question 136

In what ways does interparental conflict negatively affect children?

Answer 136

The study found that direct conflict between divorced parents was related to behavior problems among adolescents. Behavioral problems were especially averse if parental conflict involved physical violence or
made children feel as if they were caught in the middle. Interparental conflict is not only a direct stressor for children, but also might interfere with children’s attachments to parents, resulting in feelings of emotional insecurity.

Question 137

How does post-divorce economic stability affect children?

Answer 137

(Income stability, rather than total income, predicts children’s well-being. Research showing that fathers’ payment of child support is positively related to children’s school attainment and behavior provides additional support for the importance of income in facilitating children’s post-divorce adjustment.

Question 138

Which negative life events were found to predict children’s post-divorce adjustment?

Answer 138

Events such as moving and changing schools appear to be especially disruptive. Unfortunately, moving to poorer neighborhoods is common following divorce, as custodial parents are forced to live on smaller household incomes.

Question 139

What factors facilitate children’s adjustment to divorce?

Answer 139

Resources suggest that children who use active coping skills tend to adjust to divorce more quickly than children who rely on avoidance or distraction as coping mechanisms. Social support also appears to be protective. Support from peers was positively related to adjustment as rated by children, teachers, and parents. Access to therapeutic intervention also appears to improve children’s post-divorce well-being. Programs
aimed at divorcing parents are also common.

Question 140

What factors do not facilitate children’s adjustment to divorce?

Answer 140

With regard to cognition, children who place some of the blame for the divorce on themselves tend to be more poorly adjusted. One-third reported some feelings of self-blame; self-blame, in turn, was related to a variety of child problems and lower feelings of self competence. Children’s perceived lack of control over events mediated some of the impact of divorce-related stress on adjustment.

Question 141

Which custody arrangement is best for all children?

Answer 141

A reasonable conclusion is that no particular
custody arrangement is best for all children. Indeed, custody arrangements often require modification as children develop and their relationships with each parent change.

Question 142

Does parental remarriage aid in children’s adjustment to divorce?

Answer 142

It is difficult to reach broad generalizations about the role of parental remarriage in children’s adjustment because these effects vary with children’s gender, the time since the divorce, and other factors. Additional
parental divorces, however, appear to be more stressful for offspring than first divorces.

Question 143

What are the five conclusions drawn from studies about the consequences of divorce for adults and children?

Answer 143

((1) Adults and children from divorced families, as a group, score lower than their counterparts in married-couple families on a variety of indicators of well-being. (2) Although selection can account for some of these differences, the evidence is strong that divorce has an
impact on net well-being. (3) We have a good grasp of many of the mechanisms through which divorce affects an individual. These mediators include disruptions in parent-child relationships, continuing discord between former spouses, loss of emotional support, economic hardship, and an increase in the number of other negative life events, such as moving. (4) Although some
adults and children adjust relatively quickly to divorce, others exhibit long-term deficits in functioning. (5) A number of factors moderate the speed and extent of adjustment. For adults, protective factors include resources such as education and employment, support from a new partner, and being the souse who initiated the divorce. For children, protective factors include the
use of active coping skills, support from family and friends, and having access to therapeutic interventions. For adults as well as children, the end of a highly conflicted marriage is likely to be followed by improvements, rather than declines, in well-being.

Question 144

What is the contentious debate over divorce that has continued throughout the 1990s?

Answer 144

On one side are those who see divorce as an important contributor to many social problems. On the other
side are those who see divorce as a largely benign force that provides adults with a second chance for happiness and rescues children from dysfunctional and aversive home environments.

Question 145

t/f: The birth of a sibling is consistently found to be linked to increased problems of adjustment in firstborn children.

Answer 145

True

Question 146

t/f: Children growing up in disharmonious homes have fewer problems if they have good sibling relationships.

Answer 146

True

Question 147

t/f: No problems were apparent in middle childhood and adolescence for children whose siblings had been very negative and hostile to them during the preschool years.

Answer 147

False

Question 148

t/f: Sibling relationships tend to become more egalitarian as they reach middle childhood.

Answer 148

True

Question 149

t/f: It is pretty much impossible for intense supportive sibling relationships to develop in families in which the parent-child relationships are distant or uninvolved.

Answer 149

False

Question 150

t/f: Negativity, punitiveness, and overcontrol in the parent-child relationship are correlated with aggressiveness and hostility in the sibling relationship.

Answer 150

True

Question 151

t/f: It is not until after age 5 that young children learn to tease and manipulate their siblings’ emotions.

Answer 151

False

Question 152

t/f: Family life is experienced very differently by each child who is a member of that family.

Answer 152

True

Question 153

President Hinckley (2000) suggests important topics that we should be teaching our children to help them find their way back to their Father in Heaven. They include:

Answer 153

Teach them to seek for good friends.
Teach them to value education.
Teach them to respect their bodies.
Teach your sons and daughters to avoid illegal drugs as they would the plague.
Teach them to be honest.
Teach them to pray.
Teach them to be virtuous.

Question 154

Successful interventions

Answer 154

(a) produces effects on multiple risk factors, such as ineffective parenting or child behavior;
(b) includes ecological, multiple-setting designs, providing support in multiple settings, such as peer groups, schools, and families;
(c) involves urban, low-income populations;
(d) continues for at least 2 years; and
(e) is implemented during the child’s first 5 years of life. Unfortunately, many interventions do not meet these criteria.

Question 155

There is a 63% difference between LDS boys and non-LDS boys on which delinquent activity?

Answer 155

sexual activity

Question 156

LDS boys and girls both reported the highest percentages on which delinquent behavior?

Answer 156

Smoking cigarettes

Question 157

While non-LDS girls had the highest percentages of delinquent activity for sexual relations and smoking, were the highest percentages of delinquent activity among LDS girls in the same categories? If no, how were the trends different?

Answer 157

yes

Question 158

While LDS boys had the highest percentages of delinquent behavior in the areas of smoking and being suspended, were the highest percentages of delinquent activity among non-LDS boys in the same categories? If no, how were the trends different?

Answer 158

No; highest percentages were in sexual relations and smoking among non-LDS boys.

Question 159

.
Are LDS teens lower in every category than their non-LDS peers when boys are compared with boys and girls are compared with girls?

Answer 159

yes

Question 160

In discussing the percentages on the chart, “Percentages of LDS Youth Who Have Ever Committed Delinquent Offenses,” the authors concluded that the differences in delinquency for LDS youth living in the three different locations studied were small, moderate, or large?

Answer 160

small

Question 161

After discussing the chart just referred to, the authors recommended that greater parental direction was needed in which two areas?

Answer 161

The two areas that the authors recommend greater parental direction are: “picked on youth” and “cheated on a test.”

Question 162

The authors indicate that clearly, and ____________ help counteract the often powerful peer pressures that youth face at school.

Answer 162

Choosing good friends; having good family relationships.

Question 163

Which was the stronger influence in keeping youth from delinquency: private religious behaviors or public religious behaviors?

Answer 163

Private religious behaviors.

Question 164

Study participants usually complained about how strict their parents were and that they usually had too many family rules.

Answer 164

false