reading development Flashcards
what are 3 writing systems
Alphabetic systems: English, Italian, Russian, Greek, Korean Arabic, Hebrew, Persian (only consonants need to be written) Syllabaries Japanese (Kana) Morpho-syllabic Chinese
when does language development occur
Starts before birth
Newborns can discriminate all possible phonemes
After 12 months, phonemes that don’t appear in the infant’s native language are no longer discriminated
Aware of basic grammatic structures by age 2: dog bites cat != cat bites dog
further language development
“Naming explosion” at age 2
5000-6000 words known at age 6
Start learning pragmatic use of language during preschool
Metalinguistic awareness, e.g. a sentence can be wrong/right, a sentence consists of words, etc.
Reading readiness programmes (phonological awareness-focused) vs. emerging literacy programmes: focus on communication and expression
what are Chall (1996) ‘s 3 stages of reading development
learning to read (grade 1-3)
Reading to learn (grade 4-9)
Independent reading (grade 10 - university)
what are the characteristics of the learning to read stage
initial reading & decoding
building fluency
listening comprehension better than reading comp
what are the characteristics of the reading to learn stage
subject area reading
vocab expands through reading
reading =/> listening comp
what are the characteristics of the independent reading stage
wide reading in diff subjects/genres
continued vocab expansion
can integrate multiple viewpoints
reading = more efficient than listening
what are Marsh (1981)’s stages of reading development
Linguistic guessing
discrimination net guessing
sequential decoding = letter-by-letter reading
heirarchical decoding
what are the characteristics of the linguistic guessing stage
Glance and guess
Guesses may not share any letters with actual word
what are the characteristics of the discrimination net stage
Sophisticated guessing
Guesses share at least some letters with the actual word
what are the characteristics of the Sequential decoding = Letter-by-letter reading
stage
Simple grapheme-phoneme correspondences
Starts being able to identify even unfamiliar words (but reading is slow!)
what are the characteristics of the Hierarchical decoding stage
Skilled reading
Confidently identifies familiar and unfamiliar words (and reading is fast)
what is stage 0 when starting to read
“Stage 0”: First attempts: memorisation of the visual image of the word
No concept of grapheme/phoneme correspondence or morphology
how to get from guessing to sequential decoding ( 2 steps)
Selective visual association
e.g. if the word starts with a “c”, it is “cat”
But then the child encounters “car” and “cool”
Cipher/alphabetic stage
Child starts to pay attention to the alphabetic principle
features of heading towards the alphabetic stage
Phonological errors are a good sign (Stuart, 1990)
They show that the child is trying to apply the alphabetic principle
Other errors (e.g. order) are less productive
Self-teaching by attempting phonological recoding on novel words
Encountering the same words again and again through practice brings fluency
what is phonological awareness (emergent literacy)
Learning what a phoneme is
First abstraction
Easy for vowels
Harder for consonants
Problem: Coarticulation
Consonants sound different depending on what sound follows them
Dime vs. dome vs. lid
Children have to develop an (intuitive) idea of what a phoneme is
Phonological awareness is a good predictor of later reading skills.
what is orthographic regularity
How regular (shallow) is the alphabetic system?
Does every phoneme correspond to only one letter?
Does every letter correspond to only one phoneme?
Finnish: perfectly regular/shallow
English: very irregular/deep orthography
The less regular, the harder to develop ponological awareness!
what is Print awareness in Emergent literacy:
Awareness that text encodes language
How do children obtain this knowledge?
Interaction with parents
Does storybook reading by parents improve later reading performance?
Actually, not much!
Eye-tracking study (Evans & Saint-Aubin, 2005)
Children tend to look at the pictures, not the words!
Adults usually don’t draw children’s attention to the text
If they do, that might be helpful
phonics approach of teaching reading to children
Standard approach to reading instruction: Phonics
Emphasis on teaching grapheme-phoneme correspondence
English is one of the most difficult languages for learning to read
Extremely high number of irregular pronunciations
Controversy: maybe a whole-word learning approach works better for English?
Not true: Phonics works best
what is the whole word approach
Whole-word/meaning-emphasis instruction
The most important words are irregular (e.g. “have”, so those should be learned first, and by heart
That way, children can have early success reading interesting texts
Beginning readers get used to reading for meaning
Motivating and enjoyable
Children should not be corrected when they make errors (so as to not demotivate them)
what is the phonics approach
systematic instruction on grapheme-phoneme correspondence
Start with limited number of letters, then introduce more and more complex letters and consonant clusters (th, ch, st, tr)
Words are repeated frequently
Possibly boring and repetitive
Not as motivating as whole-word approach
Although independently sounding out a new word can be very rewarding
which route does the whole word approach focus on
direct route, lexicon and semantic system
which route does the phonics approach focus on
focuses on teaching grapheme phoneme rule, children can build up lexical rep’s naturally as encounter words repeatedly
which model works best according to DRC model
the phonics approach as develops grapheme-phoneme rule first, can use it to learn new words
easier than spending whole time learning words
whole word approach less effective
evans and carr (1985) compared 2 teaching programmes
Teacher-directed classroom programme involving phonics drills
Student-centered classrooms focused on natural exposure to language and text
Result: students in phonics-oriented classrooms performed better
National reading panel study, effect of classroom instruction on reading performance
Meta-analysis of 38 studies on the effect of classroom instruction on reading performance
Clear result: systematic phonics were superior to any other method
On the whole, phonics-centered approach (with carefully designed, motivating materials) is best.
what are the 2 types of dyslexia
Acquired
Developmental
what is acquired dyslexia
Problems caused by brain damage (e.g. by a stroke, an illness, or trauma)
what is developmental dyslexia
Decoding problems despite intact brain, usually becoming obvious in childhood.
what are the 3 types of acquired dyslexia
surface dyslexia
phonological dyslexia
deep dyslexia
what is surface dyslexia
Good at reading regular words and non-words
Bad at reading irregular words
Direct route in DRC model seems to be damaged
what is phonological dyslexia
Good at reading familiar words
Bad at reading unfamiliar words and nonwords
Indirect route (grapheme-phoneme correspondence route) in DRC model seems to be damaged
what is deep dyslexia
Good at reading familiar words
Bad at reading unfamiliar words and nonwords
Characteristic semantic errors: read “kitten” as /cat/
Confuse visually similar words
Morphological errors (adding prefix/suffix)
what are the classic criterion for developmental dyslexia
Classic criterion: Children with normal intelligence who have specific difficulties reading
To be distinguished from acquired dyslexia (e.g. through a brain injury or disease)
General consensus: caused by problems with language processing
what is the Phonological deficit hypothesis
Children with dyslexia usually have problems with grapheme-phoneme correspondence
But is this the cause of their problems or just a symptom of general reading difficulties?
Do dyslexics just have a problem with auditory processing in general?
Dyslexic readers seem to have normal categorical perception of phonemes (Joanisse et al., 2000)
what is the magnocellular theory of dyslexia
Magnocellular visual pathway mediates depth, motion, binocular coordination
processed in lateral genicular nucleus
what is binocular disparity
Usually, your two eyes don’t focus on the exact same location
As long as the two fixation locations are close enough together, your visual system fuses the image and you are fine
If the eyes are too far apart, you get double vision (not good)
Maybe dyslexics’ problems are because they can’t coordinate their eyes as well as typical readers?
Kirkby, Blythe, Drieghe, & Liversedge (2011) study on dot scanning vs. reading
to see if Is dyslexics’ binocular coordination impaired on both tasks?
presented children with strings of dots in sequence and saw how close the yes were together when scanning compared to normal reading task
should be impaired in both if due to binocular disparity
found Higher disparity in
children with dyslexia,
but only in the reading
task!
explanations for Kirkby, Blythe, Drieghe, & Liversedge (2011) findings
The magnocellular theory would have predicted that dyslexic children should have binocular coordination problems regardless of the task.
Binocular disparity while reading is likely caused by the difficulty of the reading task for dyslexic children.
Reading difficulty causes disparity
Disparity does not cause reading difficulty
