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Cell Bio III > Quiz 4 > Flashcards

Quiz 4 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Embryonic Development Involves:

A
  1. Cell Proliferation
  2. Cell Differentiation
  3. Pattern formation and Morphogenesis
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2
Q

Cell Cycle

A

The sequence of stages through which a cell passes between one cell division and the next.

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3
Q

Cell cycle checkpoints Definition

A

Surveillance mechanisms that monitor the order, integrity, and fidelity of the major events of the cell cycle.

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4
Q

What are the Cell Cycle Checkpoints?

A
  • G1/R checkpoint
  • S-phase checkpoint
  • G2 checkpoint
  • Metaphase (M) checkpoint
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5
Q

G1/R checkpoint

A

Monitors external & internal conditions (DNA damage)

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6
Q

S, G2, & M checkpoints

A

Monitors internal conditions

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7
Q

During G1, cells are responsive to:

A
  • nutrient levels
  • anchorage dependance
  • Mitogenic growth factors
  • Anti-mitogenic TGF-beta signals
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8
Q

What are the choices prior to/ at R point?

A
  • Remain in active proliferation.
  • Exit from cell cycle (G0 or post-mitotic phase)
    or
  • Apoptosis
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9
Q

What happens after passing the R point?

A

Cells commit to completing the cell cycle relatively independent of extracellular signals

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10
Q

What does evidence implicate about the deregulation of the G1/ R checkpoint?

A

the deregulation of the G1/r checkpoint is found in most if not all types of cancer cells

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11
Q

What happens before/during the G0 phase?

A

*Cells monitor internal and external conditions (signals) and make decisions about whether to continue proliferation or enter G0.

*Cells may may enter the G0 phase prior to the R checkpoint (G1 checkpoint) for a variety of reasons.

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12
Q

What are the three G0 states?

A
  • Quiescent (resting, inactive)
  • Senescent (not really resting or active)
  • Differentiated (not active) — Terminally differentiated cells like nerve and muscle cells.
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13
Q

What G0 state is reversible?

A

Quiescent

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14
Q

Genes that regulate the cell cycle:

A
  • are often mutated in cancer in two types of genes
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15
Q

What is the cell cycle clock?

A

A way to explain the molecular actions of many oncogenes and their effects on the clock ??

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16
Q

Proto-oncogenes

A
  • Stimulates cell cycle progression
  • Mutation in Cancer –> Gain of function mutation

-“Brake genes”

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17
Q

Tumor Suppressors

A
  • Inhibits cell cycle progression
  • Mutation in cancer –>Loss of function
  • “Gas pedal genes”
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18
Q

How is genome integrity maintained?

A

Tumor suppressor p53 is activated in response to DNA damage

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19
Q

What is the p53 pathway responsible for?

A
  • Halting the cell cycle until damage is repaired
  • Initiating apoptosis
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20
Q

See Classic model of p53 activation

A

–

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20
Q

See the Classic model of p53 activation

A

–

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21
Q

p53’s function is sequestered by what?

A

MDM2

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22
Q

What are the sequential activation steps?

A
  1. Stress-induced stabilization of P53 mediated by phosphorylation
  2. DNA binding
  3. Recruitment of the general transcriptional machinery
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23
Q

Cell cycle molecular circuitry

A

Complexes of CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASES and CYCLINS regulate passage through checkpoints
-See figure-

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24
Q

How is progression through different checkpoints controlled?

A

Different cyclins rise and fall at different times during the cell cycle

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25
Q

What happens when a cyclin level reaches it’s threshold?

A

it binds to it’s cognate CDK

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26
Q

What are cyclins and CDKs regulated by?

A

Many different signals through signal transduction pathways

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27
Q

D1

A

Cyclin D1

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28
Q

Cyclin D1

A

Can be repressed to prevent cyclin CDK

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29
Q

What has been shown to possess a powerful anti-cancer effect?

A

Turmeric (Curcumin)

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30
Q

What two steps in embryonic development relate to stem cells?

A
  1. Cell Proliferation
  2. Cell differentiation
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31
Q

What are the two defining properties of stem cells?

A
  1. The ability to self-renew (self-regenerate, proliferate)
  2. The ability to differentiate into specialized stem cells
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32
Q

Differentiation

A

When an unspecialized early embryonic cell acquires the features of a specialized cell such as a heart, liver, or muscle cell

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33
Q

See the figure on cell differentiation steps

A

Draw Figure

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34
Q

Cell Potency

A

A cell’s ability to differentiate into other cell types. The more cell types a cell can differentiate into, the greater it’s potrncy

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35
Q

See the figure on the Hierarchy of Stem Cells

A

Draw Figure

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36
Q

Totipotent

A
  • the state of a cell that is capable of giving rise to all types of cells found in an organism
  • supports extra-embryonic structures of the placenta
  • a single totipotent cell could reproduce the whole organism in utero
    –Fertilized oocyte through 8 or 16- cell stage
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37
Q

Pluripotent

A

The state of a single cell that is capable of differentiating into all tissues of an organism, but not capable of sustaining full organism development

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38
Q

What is an example of Pluripotent?

A

Inner Cell Mass

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39
Q

Embryonic Stem Cell (ESC)

A

Primitive (undifferentiated cells derived from preimplantation-stage embryos) can divide without differentiating for a prolonged period in culture.

Known to develop into cells and tissues of the three primary germ layers

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40
Q

Multipotent

A

The ability to develop into more than one cell type of the body

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41
Q

Example of multipotent

A

Hematopoietic stem cells

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42
Q

What is an example of oligopotent and Unipotent?

A

Spermatogonial stem cells

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43
Q

Progenitor Cells

A

Divide a limited number of times and have the tendency to differentiate into specific cell types, usually unipotent, will differentiate into its “target” cell.

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44
Q

Which cell types have unlimited proliferation?

A

Zygotes

Embryonic stem cells

Multipotent stem cells

(see figure)

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45
Q

Which cells have limited proliferation?

A

Neuronal progenitor

Differentiating neuronal precursors

(see figure)

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46
Q

Which cells have no proliferation?

A

Differentiated cells

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47
Q

What happens as cells become more differentiated?

A

There is a loss of developmental potential. (POTENCY)

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48
Q

What do multipotent stem cells become?

A

Progenitor Cells

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49
Q

What is the typical course of embryogenesis?

A

It involves the specialization of stem cells into progenitor and precursor cells and then finally into adult tissue through differentiation or specialization.

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50
Q

Adult Stem Cells are also known as…

A

Somatic stem cells

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51
Q

Somatic stem cells

A

Their progeny replaces cells that are lost owing to tissue turnover or injury, thus ensuring the maintenance of tissue.

They are usually maintained in a quiescent state,and when activated, they proliferate to replenish damaged tissue

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52
Q

Cellular Plasticity

A

Describes the ability of some cells to take on the characteristics of other cells

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53
Q

Stem Cell Plasticity

A
  1. The ability of adult tissue-specific stem cells to switch to new identities.
  2. Stem Cell phenotypic potential (as opposed to normal cell fate)
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54
Q

De-differentiation

A

Cells go from a specialized function to a simpler state like stem cells

55
Q

Trans-differentiation

A

The conversion of one differentiated (mature) cell type into another cell type (without undergoing an intermediate pluripotent state or progenitor cell type.)

56
Q

Adult cell plasticity (in vivo)

A

retains the capacity to de-differentiate or transdifferentiate under physiological conditions, as part of an organ’s normal injury response.

57
Q

Adult plasticity key points

A

-

58
Q

Morphogenesis

A
  • Creation of a well-ordered form
  • Cell & tissue movement give the organisms or organs their 3D shape
  • “Coordinated” with cell proliferation, differentiation, migration, cell death
  • Tissues must be arranged in a precise pattern (pattern formation)
59
Q

Pattern formation

A

Embryonic cells acquire identities that lead to a well-ordered spatial and temporal pattern of cell activities so that a spatially organized structure develops.

60
Q

Body plan

A

Describes the overall organization of an organism. Involves defining the main axes of the embryo.

61
Q

SEE AXES OF SYMMETRY FIGURES

What are the important Axes?

A
  • Anterior — Posterior (Cranial — Caudal)
  • Dorsal — Ventral
  • Right — Left

Others:

  • Medial — Lateral
  • Proximal — Distal
62
Q

What are the phases of pattern formation?

A
  1. Formation of body axes
    -breaking symmetry
  2. Organization of the embryo into smaller regions
  3. Segments develop specific characteristics
  4. Tissues & organs are produced
63
Q

What are three stages in the embryonic period?

A

Cleavage

Gastrulation

Organogenesis

64
Q

Gametogenesis

A

Formation of gametes
- Meiosis produces haploid cells (n) from diploid cells

65
Q

What are the four phases of Gametogenesis?

A
  1. Extra embryonic origin of germ cells and their migration into the gonads
  2. Mitosis to increase # of germ cells
  3. Meiosis to reduce chromosome #
  4. Structural and functional maturation
66
Q

SEE FIGURE FOR PHASE 1
- Gametogenesis

A

-

67
Q

SEE FIGURE FOR PHASE 2 & 3
-Spermatogenesis & Oogenesis

A

-

68
Q

In females Meiosis is not completed until….

A

Fertilization

69
Q

Meiosis is _________ prior to fertilization, when depends on the species

A

Meiosis is _halted__ prior to fertilization, when depends on the species

70
Q

What are the structural layers of the ovum?

A

Follicular cells of corona radiata

Cytoplasm

Nucleus

Zona Pellucida

71
Q

What happens to the ovum prior to hatching and implantation?

A

The ovum is packed with material (maternal factors) for very early development. This allows for cleavage-stage development while the embryo travels down the oviduct

72
Q

Fertilization accomplishes:

A

Fusion of male and female gametes to form a diploid zygote

Sexual reproduction

Egg/metabolic & initiation of development

73
Q

Major Steps of Fertilization

A

-

74
Q

Completion of egg meiosis Formation of pronuclei Mitosis begins…

A

Pronuclei fuse

75
Q

Cleavage

A

Rapid cell division; little or no cell growth between divisions

76
Q

Cleavage pattern

A
  • Cleavage patterns vary among metazoans vary, but in each case, cleavage serves the same function.

-Cleavage produces a ball of cells with a fluid or yolk filled cavity — In deuterostomes

-By the completion of cleavage, cells take on different identities and symmetry is broken

77
Q

Blastomere

A

a cell formed by cleavage of a fertilized ovum.

78
Q

Blastocoel

A

The fluid-filled cavity of a blastula

79
Q

Morula

A

a solid ball of cells resulting from division of a fertilized ovum, and from which a blastula is formed.

80
Q

Blastula

A

Hollow ball of cells

-embryo
-blastocyst

81
Q

What is the connection between cleavage pattern and early life?

A

Food source

Rate of cell division

Level of control by maternal genome

82
Q

Food source

A
  • Transition to free-living larva
  • Yolk
  • Placental attachment

Unless a large amount of yolk (food) is present in the egg, nutrients & metabolites will soon be exhausted and developing embryo/fetus will need an external food source

83
Q

Maternal Control

A

Cellular processes carried out by transcripts/proteins present in the egg prior to fertilization

Allows for more rapid cell division; early zygotic control, slows cell division

84
Q

Differences in cleavage patterns relate to different strategies for early development that depend partly on…

A

Yolk content

85
Q

Cleavage pattern will determine:

A
  • The relative sizes of blastomeres and their configuration
  • Where and how cytoplasmic components are segregated into the different blastomeres
86
Q

Emergence of pattern formation

A

Body Plan

87
Q

Cleavage in Mammals

SEE FIG 2.2

A

-

88
Q

Blastocyst

A

At the end of cleavage the embryo has entered the uterus and implants in the uterine wall, becoming a blastocyst

89
Q

Inner cell mass —>

A

Embryo proper
-Embryonic stem cells

90
Q

Trophoblast (outer cells)

A

Supporting structures contributes to placenta

91
Q

Cell polarity model of differentiation of blastomeres….

A

May relate to the emergence of pattern formation

92
Q

Gastrulation

A

Extensive rearrangement of cells
-Highly integrated cell and tissue movements in which the blastula is transformed into a three layered embryo with a primitive gut

93
Q

Gastrula

A

Gastrulation-stage embryo

94
Q

Gastrulation results in:

A
  • Formation of the three germ layers
  • Formation of the primitive gut (archenteron)
  • “A tube-within-a-tube” body plan
  • Elongated rostrocaudal axis
95
Q

Blastopore

A

Opening to the primitive git becomes the anus in vertebrates and echinoderms

96
Q

Germ Layers

A
  • Ectoderm
  • Mesoderm
  • Endoderm
97
Q

Epithelial cells

A

Strong interactions other cells (cell adhesion) and ECM; stationary, polar

-See figure

98
Q

Mesenchymal cells

A

Weak/no interactions with other cells or ECM; mobile (can migrate and invade), no cell polarity

See figure

99
Q

Ectoderm

A
  • The outermost layer of the gastrula
  • Nervous and sensory systems, epidermis
100
Q

Mesoderm

A
  • Partly fills the space the space between the ectoderm and endoderm
  • Skeletal, muscular, and circulatory systems, excretory and reproductive systems, dermis; notochord
101
Q

Endoderm

A
  • Lines the achentron
  • epithelial lining of the digestive tract and associated organs
    Epithelial lining of the respiratory system (lungs)
102
Q

See figures on Gastrulation

A
103
Q

Organogenesis

A

The organs of the animal body form from the three embryonic layers

104
Q

What is the order of a tube within a tube body plan?

A

outer most – Ectoderm – mesoderm – endoderm – innermost

105
Q

Cell Differentiation

A

Cells interact with each other and acquire different identities

106
Q

Morphogenesis

A
  • Segments form and develop specific characteristics
  • Organized spatial patterns of differentiated cells, tissues folding or splitting
  • Formation of tissues and organs
107
Q

Notochord

A

Embryonic “backbone” (not present in adult mammals)

Source of inducing signaling

108
Q

Somites

A

Somites give rise to the cells that form the vertebrae and ribs, the dermis of the dorsal skin, the skeletal muscles of the back, and the skeletal muscles of the body wall and limbs.

109
Q

Neurulation

A
  • Formation of the neural tube
  • Along with notochord, 1st organ-like structures to form
110
Q

From ectoderm, neurulation produces:

A
  • Epidermis – epidermis, eye lens, anterior pituitary
  • Neural tube – central nervous system (brain, spinal cord), retina
  • Neural Crest – peripheral nervous system, facial cartilage
111
Q

Cell shape changes

A

cell shape changes by apical constriction

coordinated changes in cell shape can cause cell layers to buckle, roll, extend, and/or shrink

112
Q

Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal cell transitions (EMT)

A
  • require a loss of cell adhesion
  • are important for development, but also a hallmark of cancer
113
Q
A

during differentiation, different types of cells form with different adhesion, allowing them to specifically adhere to each other and form tissues

114
Q

Cadherins

A
  • Calcium-dependent cell adhesion proteins
  • Homotypic binding specificity
    -Involved in many morpho-regulatory processes including the establishment of tissue boundaries, tissue rearrangement, cell differentiation, and metastasis
115
Q

Intercalation

A

Cells mover in between adjacent cells

116
Q

invagination

A

the infolding of sheet cells, much like the indenting of a hollow rubber ball when poked

117
Q

Involution

A

a type of cell movement during gastrulation that involves the interning or inward movement of an expanding outer layer so that it spreads over the internal surface of the remaining external cells.

118
Q

ingression

A

the migration of individual cells from surface layers into the interior of the embryo

119
Q

Epiboly

A

“over the ball” – usually the growth of epidermal ectoderm to cover the surface of the embryo during gastrulation

120
Q

Delamination

A

splitting of one cellular sheet or layer into two parallel layer

121
Q

convergent extension

A

elongation of a cell layer in one dimension and shortening in another dimension

122
Q

Neurulation

A

Notochord forms and secretes signals that induce formation of the neural tube

123
Q

Cell shape changes

A

produce hinge points for rolling up of the neural tube

124
Q

What dorsalizing signals from the notochord simulate neural function

A

Chordin and noggin

125
Q

Cell adhesion changes

A

Neural crest cells and separation of neural tube from epidermis

126
Q

Neurulation results in

A

the differentiation of ectoderm into 3 types of lineages

127
Q

Neurelation steps

A

Early cleavage cells —> Inner cell Mass —> ectoderm —>neural tube —> forebrain “segment” —> cerebrum

128
Q

Homeodomain-containing TFs

A

Hox

Pax

Lim

129
Q

Homeodomain

A

60 amino acids in length

130
Q

Hox transcription factors

A
  • Hox TFs pattern the anterior-posterior body axis playing a crucial role in segment-specific organogenesis
  • ## Normal temporo-spatial limb and organ development
131
Q

Pax transcription factors

A

Involved in pattern development / regional specification

132
Q

LIM transcription factors

A

Involvement in tissue patterning and differentiation, particularly neural patterning

133
Q

MyoD

A

Master Regulator — turns developing cells into muscle cells

134
Q

Zinc finger transcription factors

A
  • Sox
  • WT1
  • Kruppel
135
Q

Sox

A

Helps differentiate germ layers

Cell Bio III (3 decks)

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