Quiz 3 Flashcards
What are the five basic emotions, and can we recognise them in other species?
Anger, sadness, happiness, disgust and fear - and yes, we can recpgnise them in other species.
What are the three key elements of emotional response? What does the modern biopsychological theory state about these elements?
Three key elements ->
- perception of emotion-inducing stimuli
- autonomic and somatic nervous system responses
- experience of emotion (feeling)
The mdoern biopsychological theories state that all of these elements are dynamic; can influence each other. It also states that any overstimulation of one or more of these elements can lead to stress, anxiety or depression.
What is the limbic system, and what does it do?
The limbic system is a series of subcortical structures that are connected by white matter pathways. It facilitates emotional responses.
What can occur as a result of injury to the limbic system?
Changes in behaviour and emotional responses, eg. monkeys are no longer scared of snakes if their amygdala has been damaged.
What happens when we lose all of our amygdala vs what happens if we lose only a portion of our amygdala?
If we lose all of our amygdala we lose our sense of fear. However, if the amygdala is only partially damaged the rest of the amygdala can overcompensate for the missing section and increase our fear response.
What are the two main systems involved in stress, and what is the main behvaioural response?
Two main systems are the neural and endocrine (hormone) system. The main behavioural response is fight-flight-freeze.
Do all stressors elicit the same stress response?
Yes
What characterises good stress?
- transient and mild
- occurs in a safe environment
- plausible but not guaranteed reward
- you are in control
- enahnces alterness and focus
What characterises bad stress?
- chronic and severe
- (perceived) lack of control
- lack of predictability
What is the endocrine and nervous system responses?
Endocrine -> hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
Nervous -> sympathetic-adrenal-medullary (SAM) system
What does the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis do in response to stress?
It responds in a slow, longer lasting way, in which cortisol is released in the adrenal cortex (kidneys).
What does the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary (SAM) system do in response to stress?
This response is fast and short acting, in which adrenaline/ epinephrine is released from the adrenla medulla
How does cortisol interfere with our sleep cycle?
Cortisol interferes with our circadian rhythm. We naturally release alot of cortisol in the morning and slowly taper off throughout the day. Therefore, if high levels of cortisol are still present at night, we tend not to feel tireed/ have trouble going to sleep.
What is psychoneuroimmunology, what is eustress and what is distress?
Psychoneuroimmunology is the interactions betwene psychological functions, the nervous system and the immune system.
Eustress -> acute stres simproves immune function
Distress -> chronic stress weakens immune function
What does cortisol hyperactivation do to the immune system?
It lowers the immune response/ weakens the immune system.
What is the innate vs. adaptive immune system?
Innate immune system is the rapid, nonspecific response to a foreign body. the adaptive immune system are antigen specific immune responses, in which B cells and T cells recognise and attack specific antigens.
What is psychosocial short stature, how does ti resolve, and what is it caused by?
Psychosocial short stature is a disease resulting in a short stature. It is caused by extreme stress and emotional deprivation during childhood - hyper release of epinephrine causes deficiencies in growth hormones. It usually resolves if a child is taken out of the stressfull situation.
Where is the hippocampus, and what is it important for?
The hippocampus is in the temporal lobe, and it is important for learning, memory and mood recognition.
What effect does stress have on the hippocampus?
The high density of glucocorticoid receptors makes the hippocampus vulnerable to stress. When our stress levels, and subsequent cortisol levels, are too high, the hippocampus can experience reduced dendritic branching and neurogenesis. Shrinkage occurs in the hippocampus as a result of grey matter loss.
What does hippocampus shrinkage (as a result of stress) cause?
Causes memory problems, difficulty concentrating, psychopathology (diseases).
What disorders is hippocampal atrophy commonly associated with?
Depression, schizophrenia, Alzheimer’s disease
What is the amygdala, and what does it do?
The amygdala is a small, almond shaped region located near the base of the brain. It facilitates perception of fear and other negative emotions unconsciously.
What does over stimulation of the amygdala lead to?
Overstimulation leads to hyperreactivity and hyperactivity - these are associate with depression, anxiety and PTSD
What is the best way to cope with stress?
To actiavte the parasympathetic nervous system. this suppresses cortisol release, dampeninig the stress response.
What is anxiety, and what are anxiety disorders?
Anxiety is a fear that persists in the absence of a direct threat. Anxiety disorders are characterised by anxiety that persists for long periods of time and effects daily living.
What are the different pharmacological treatments for anxiety?
- benzodiazepines (diazepam, xanax)
- serotonin agonists (SSRis, buspirone)
How do benzodiazepines work to help anxiety?
Enhances the effect of GABA, wich counters anxiety by sending claming effects through the brain and body. These drugs are typically short term use.
How do serotonin agonists work?
They increase serotonin circulation in the brain. They can be used long term, and typically take 2-4 weeks to feel the effects.
What are some behavioural interventions for anxiety?
-> CBT - most effective for GAD
-> psychoeducation
-> relaxation/ mindfullness/ bretahing techniques
-> exposure therapy for phobias
What is MDD?
Major depressive disorder, characterised by persistent feelings of sadness and hopelessness, and loss of interest in activities one enjoyed
What is anhedonia and apathy?
Anhedonia - the inability to experience pleasure
Apathy - lack of interest, enthusiasm or concern
What are two subtypes of MDD?
Seasonal affective disorder -> depression occurs during a season of the year. Typically occurs due to changes in the circadian rhythm as a result of dark days - more melatonin release, lack of vitamin D (precursor to serotonin).
Peripartum depression - depression that occurs during and/ or after pregnancy. Typically due to the physical (hormonal) changes and sleep deprivation - 1/5 women experience this
What is the rewards system? How does MDD affect this system?
The rewards system is a system of subcortical structures that are connected to the frontal lobe via white matter tracts. MDD causes grey matter volume reductions in the prefrontal cortex, cingulate cortex and amygdala.
What is the monoamine theory of depression?
Depression is caused by reduced levels of monoamines (serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine).
- post mortem studies found increased number of reuptake transporters for serotonin and norepinephrine on pre-synaptic neurons in MDD patients
What do monoamine oxidase inhibitors do? What do they treat?
MAOIs increase levels of monoamine neurotransmitters by inhibiting MAOs. They treat depression.
What do SSRIs do? What do they treat?
SSRIs block the reuptake of serotonin, leaving more serotonin in the brain. They treat anxiety and depression.
What do atypical antidepressants do?
Atypical antidepressants (mirtazapine, bupropion) effect different neurotransmitters like dopamine, melatonin, nicotinic acetylcholine.
What do tricyclic antidepressants do?
Tricyclic antidepressants (amitryptiline, imipramine) block the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine.
What is the neuroplasticity theory of depression?
Depression results from a decrease of neuroplastic processes in brain regions. Stress causes changes in neuroplasticity (ie. shrinking hippocampus) -> prolonged stress can trigger MDD.
What do NDMA receptor agonists do?
They block glutamate re-uptake (glutamate = excitatory neuron). Eg. ketamine
What is the neuroinflammatory theory of depression?
Stress leads to an increased release of pro-inflammatory cytokines -> bi-directional feedback loop between cytokines and cortisol. The reward system is also vulnerable to prolonged inflammation - leads to decreased serotonin
-> depression often comorbid with autoimmune dosrders and highly prevalent after brain injury.
What are 3 MDD treatments based on the neuroinflammatory theory of depression?
- antidepressants
- fish-oil, diet high in omega 3
- NSAID (aspirin, iburpofen, naproxen)
How do psychedelics assist people with depression and anxiety? Examples?
Psychedelics break the cycle of ‘disorder lock’, and enhance neuroplasticity. eg. Psilocybin, MDMA
What are the three subdivisions of the frontal cortex?
Motor region, premotor region, prefrontal region (from caudal to rostral).
What do the frontal eye fields do?
They have the role of moving gaze to different directions. If this is stimulated, the eye moves contralaterally.
What are the three parts of the prefrontal cortex? Where does the prefrontal cortex recieve information from?
- prefrontal dorsolateral cortex
- oribitofrontal (ventromedial) cortex
- medial frontal cortex (cingulate gyrus)
What can occur due to damage in the ventromedial (oribotfrontal) prefrontal regions?
Personality changes. Case study - Phineas Gage
What is the prefrontal area responsible for? What happens if there is damage in this area?
Planning. If there is damage, patients are ‘stimulus-bound’. They cannot plan ahead, do not respond to imaginary situations ro plans for the future, coukd nto sustain goals, become sexually promiscuous and/or gain weight
What is the effect of damage in the dorsolateral prefrontal areas?
Cognitive deficits occur. Patients show deficits in abstraction, planning, selection of the appropriate response, working memory. They often have poor self-direction and are easily distracted.
What is convergent vs. divergent thinking? Which is affected by frontal lobe injury?
Convergent thinking - one stright answer to a question
Divergent thinking - many possible responses.
Divergent thinking is affected by frontal lobe injury.
What is working memory? Which area is responsible for this?
Working memory is the ability to maintain something in your mind whilst you mentally manipulate it. Dorsolateral prefrontal area is responsible for this.
Which area of the frontal cortex is responsible for temporal memory oranisation? what occurs when this area is damaged?
The prefrontal cortex. When this area is damaged patients could not generate a plan to achieve a coherent goal - keep switching between tasks, could not remember ingredients for food
What does frontotemporal/ Pick’s dementia cause in the brain? What are it’s symptoms?
Atrophy of brain cells in the frontal lobe.
Symptoms:
- abnormal spontaneous behaviour
- unkempt, joke innapropriately
- speech and language changes
- movement disorders
- echolalia and exchopraxia (imitate the words and gestures of others in conversation)
What are confabulations, and where are the lesions associated with this located?
Confabulations - inability to determien the correct temporal order in which events arise. Ventromedial/ orbitofrontal prefrontal area
What area does social and emotional decision making derive from?
Orbitofrontal/ ventromedial cortex
What brain regions do primary emotions come from and what brain regions does secondary emotions come from?
Primary, innate emotions - amygdala and anterioir cingulate cortex (medial frontal cortex)
Secondary, acquired - prefrontal areas
What system in the brain does arousal rely on? What test can you use to determine arousal in a coma?
Reticular activating system in the brain stem. Glasgow coma scale - 8> = severe vegetative state, 12< = minor impairment.
What is Broadbent’s theory on attention?
That attention functions as an early filter, filtering out information before it reaches higher brain regions.
What is Cherry’s theory of attention?
That semantic processing of stimul occurs before filtering, ie. filtering of information is a later stage process. Tested this using dichotic listening tasks, in which participants still heard their names or salient words despite two different sources of sound coming in.
What occurs in a distractor interference task?
In a distractor interference task, irrelevant information (ie. letters appearing on either side of the stimulus) slows response times to the target, particularly when the opposite response needs to be inhibited.
What are the three components and associated brain areas of attention shifting?
Disengagement - parietal lobes
Shifting - looking at new target - superior colliculus
Engagement - after reaching new targat, must then re-engage - thalamus
What is the Posner paradigm/ covert attention paradigm? What are the general results?
Press left or right key on the side the arrow appears -> arrow inidcates the most likely side of the square -> respond as rapidly as possible.
Generally, slower to respond when the opposite arrow appears. The further away target is from the middle, slower you react for invalid trials (further away to shift attention)
What did Posner’s paradigm reveal regarding brain regions for shfting attention?
Difficulty disengaging -> damage to parietal lobe caused patients to not be able to shift their attention contralaterally
Shifting -> lesions of the superior colliculus impair overt eye movements and covert attention shifting
Engagement -> lesions of the thalamus showed sloe responses to targets contralteral to the lesion (no change with a cue)
What are endogenous attention cues?
Symbolic cues that require you to voluntary move attention - top down process
What are exogenous cues?
Attention is involuntarily drawn, eg, flash - bottom up process
What is serial search?
Searching one element after the other
What is distributed attention when you are looking for something?
Occurs over the whole visual field, when you zoom out and look as a whole - involves parallel processing and feature search (pop-out)
What is focussed attention when you are looking for something?
Zoom in to smaller sections of the environment - serial searching
What is innatentionl blindness?
When you focus on one thing intently you can miss something else happening.
What is unilateral spatial neglect and what causes it?
When pateints do not orient thier attention to one side (typically the left side). Caused by lesions in the middle cerebral artery of the parietal lobe on the contralateral side. Left spatial neglect = lesion on right.
Why does right spatial neglect go away after a short time?
Right spatial neglect occurs as a result of a left parietal lesion. This gets resolved quickly as the right parietal regions can take over any neglect.
In what direction does the prefrontal cortex mature?
Posterior to anterioir ( front to back)
What structures are emotions closely linked to, and what can they effect?
Closely linked to limbic structures (especially amygdala) and they can influence cognition and the autonomic nervous system.
What is the feedforward loop of emotions?
The amygdala provides information about the emotional salience or significance of stimuli to the prefrontal cortex
What is the feedback loop of emotions?
Connections between the orbitofrontal cortex and the lateral prefrontal cortex mediate voluntary emotion regulation and selects appropriate behaviours.
What do fMRIs of emotion look like?
The same brain regions are active across all emotions -> one network of emotions lights up.
What is extrinsic vs. intrinsic motivation?
extrinsic - influenced by external rewards or avoiding punishment
intrinsic - driven by internal rewards
What is the role of the hypothalamus in motivation?
The hypothalamus regulates basic needs (hunger, thirst, sex drive, sleep, etc) by receiving inout from the CNS and PNS.
Also recognises the emotional drive for things by interacting with the limbic system.
What does damage in the lateral hypothalamus do?
Impacts on feeding behaviour - tied to motivation
What does damage in the ventromedial hypothalamus do
Changes satiety and aggression - tied to motivation
What does damage in the anterioir hypothalamus do?
Influences on sexual behaviour - linked to motivation
What does damage in the suprachiasmatic nucleus do?
Alterations of circadian rhythm, altering sleep patterns - tied to motivation.
What is the rewards system?
A network of subcortical structures (dorsal striatum, nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental areas) that are linked to the prefrontal cortex via dopaminergic connections
What are the two dopaminergic pathways?
Mesolimbic - connects the ventral tegmental areas to the nucleus accumbens
Mesocortical - originates in the ventral tegmental areas and connects to the PFC
What is prediction error in dopamine classical conditioning?
Dopamine is active when we anticipate a reward more than the actual reward
What are 4 major disorders of emotion?
Major depressive disorder, Bipoalr disorder, Generalised anxiety disorder, Post-traumatic stress disorder.
What are 3 disorders of motivation?
ADHD, motivation deficit disorder, chronic fatigue syndrome.
What impact does basal ganglia activity have on motivation?
Altered activity leads to difficulties initiating movements and procedural learning
What impact does PFC activation have on motivation?
Altered activity leads to an inability to sustain attention and manage impulsivity.
What are three reward related disorders?
Substance use disorders, gambling disorders and anhedonia.
What reward pathway is activated during substane use and gambling.
The mesolimbic reward system, which recieves dopamine, reinforcing the behaviours.
