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Cognitive aging > Quiz 2 > Flashcards

Quiz 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is a functional MRI?

A

A functional neuroimaging technique
measures blood oxygenation in an area with blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD)

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2
Q

How does a functional MRI work?

A

-When neurons fire there is an increase in metabolism
-results in dilation of blood vessels in that area
-end up with increased blood oxygenation in the area
-oxygenated and deoxygenated blood have different magnetic properties

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3
Q

Pros and cons/caveats of fMRI

A

Pros: -predict changes in regional activation/recruitment
Cons: -slow time course
- just a correlate of activity
- motion causes increased noise, false negative or positives
- time course of BOLD response influenced by cerebrovascular differences (biased timing and amplitude in older adults)
- BOLD signal decline as a result of cerebrovascular differences

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4
Q

fMRI interpretation

A

Predict neural activity in an area

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5
Q

What is an event-related potential?

A

Provides an estimate of the timing of a cognitive process and the strength of activity; estimate approximate location of activity

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6
Q

Pros and cons of ERPs

A

Pros: excellent temporal resolution
Cons: poor spatial resolution, poor estimation of subcortical areas, motion is still a problem

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7
Q

How do ERPs work?

A

Electrons on the brain measure voltage and create a summation of negative or positive polarity

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8
Q

ERP interpretation

A

Timing of potential, amplitude of potential, topography of potential

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9
Q

ERP component

A

Summed electrical signal associated with a cognitive process

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10
Q

Pros and cons of functional neuroimaging

A

Pros: can ask questions directly about the brain, relatively non-invasive
Cons: Correlational rather than causation, expensive, additional restrictions to sample

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11
Q

PASA

A

Posterior-Anterior Shift in Aging

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12
Q

HAROLD

A

Hemisphere Asymmetry Reduction in OLDer adults

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13
Q

CRUNCH

A

Compensation-Related Utilization of Neural Circuits Hypothesis
- deficits compared to YA cause OA to recruit additional brain regions - can only do this to a point
-as demand increases, a resource ceiling is reached, leading to age related decrements for harder tasks
-reserve can increase capacity for compensation

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14
Q

STAC/STAC-r

A

Scaffolding Theory of Aging and Cognition

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15
Q

Compensation

A

Cognition-enhancing recruitment of neural resources in response to relatively high cognitive demand

Occurs when ability is not meeting demand & see an improvement in performance with increased recruitment

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16
Q

Evidence for and against compensation

A

For: age-related hyperdifferentiation in anterior temporal lobe
Against: no evidence of increased information in PFC for older vs younger adults

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17
Q

Dedifferentiation

A

Greater similarity of neural responses across tasks/conditions
Driven by:
1) Attenuation - decreased recruitment in preferred region
2) Broadening -increased recruitment in non-preferred region
3) Both

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18
Q

Evidence for and against dedifferentiation

A

For: no evidence of increased information in PFC for older vs younger adults
Against: age-related hyperdifferentiation in anterior temporal lobe

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19
Q

Relation between neural structure and function

A

Greater structural change has been associated with greater functional recruitment (reduced gray matter, white matter decline, decreased dopamine binding, amyloid burden, iron accumulation)

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20
Q

Multi-voxel pixel analysis

A

Examines the difference in the pattern of activity across a set of voxels
Can we distinguish categories based on patterns?

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21
Q

Representational similarity analysis

A

Examine the similarity of patterns of activity across voxels
“How similar are patterns for different categories?”

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22
Q

Hyperdifferentiation

A

Increased differentiation in OA compared to YA

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23
Q

Mediation

A

Mediating variables explain why two things are related

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24
Q

Variability/individual differences in aging

A

age changes in variability are greater for
- more complex tasks
-response time compared to accuracy

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25
Q

Maintenance

A

Ongoing repair and replenishment of brain after damage due to wear and tear

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26
Q

Maintenance - effect on demand

A

Does not have an effect on demand

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27
Q

Maintenance - effect on neural resources

A

correction of neural resources after they dip

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28
Q

Maintenance - time course

A

Occurs throughout the lifespan but becomes more critical with old age

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29
Q

Reserve

A

A cumulative improvement of neural resources that mitigates the effects of neural decline caused by age

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30
Q

Reserve - effect on demand

A

Does not have an effect on demand

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31
Q

Reserve - effect on neural resources

A

increases neural resources before effects of aging take effect so ability stays above cognitive demands

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32
Q

Reserve - time course

A

Takes place before aging but can continue to be built up through old age

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33
Q

Compensation

A

Cognition-enhancing recruitment of neural resources in response to relatively high cognitive demand

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34
Q

Compensation - effect on demand

A

Occurs to meet rising demand

35
Q

Compensation - effect on neural resources

A

Increase in neural resources

36
Q

Compensation - time course

A

Occurs over second or minutes, not limited to older adults

37
Q

Compensation requirements - role of non-invasive stimulation

A
  • must be directly or indirectly related to a gap between available neural resources and task demands
  • Must be linked to improved cognitive performance
    –causality ban be determined using non-invasive stimulation
38
Q

Compensation three types

A

Upregulation, selection, reorganization

39
Q

Compensation - Upregulation

A

Older adults recruit the same process and same region as younger adults, but to a greater extent

40
Q

Compensation - selection

A

Older adults recruit an easier process that is available to young adults but not as efficient

41
Q

Compensation - Reorganization

A

Older adults recruit new processes (unavailable to YA) in place of processes affected by impairments

42
Q

Simpson’s paradox

A

Data compared across groups looks different than when compared within groups

43
Q

Moderation analyses - moderating variables

A

Influence the relationship between the independent and dependent variables

44
Q

Moderation analyses - interpretation

A

Strength of the moderating variable tested using interactions

45
Q

Testing the brain reserve hypothesis - what measures are needed

A

Operationalize:
- Reserve
- brain damage
- change in cognitive capacity

Demonstration that reserve is responsible for regulating the relationship between neural burden and decline

46
Q

Alzheimer’s - description, causes, symptoms

A

Cognitive decline in memory
Pathology: plaques, tangles, atrophy
Symptoms: impairment of episodic memory, executive functioning, spatial memory, verbal fluency

47
Q

Vascular - - description, causes, symptoms

A

-Caused by damage to the vessels that supply blood to the brain
-symptoms: problems with problem solving, slowed thinking, and loss of focus/organization

48
Q

Lewy body - description, causes, symptoms

A

Umbrella term for conditions (AD, Parkinson’s) associated with build up of Lewy bodies
-symptoms: acting out dreams in sleep and visual hallucinations; also uncoordinated or slow movement, tremors, or stiffness

49
Q

Frontotemporal - description, causes, symptoms

A

Breakdown of nerve cells and their connections in the frontal and temporal lobes
Symptoms: changes in behavior, personality, thinking, judgement, language, movement

50
Q

Semantic Dementia

A

Temporal variant of fronto-temporal dementia
Symptoms: word finding issues, word fluency deficits, impaired associative semantic knowledge, starts to interfere with everyday activities, normal episodic memory

51
Q

Gammaneuromodulation

A

Cognition is support by synchronous oscillations in the brain, particularly gamma waves
Gamma modulation has been shown to decrease AD symptoms and reduce pathology

52
Q

Gammaneuromodulation - rhythmic sensory stimulation

A

auditory and visual stimulation

53
Q

Gammaneuromodulation - Transcranial alternative neural stimulation

A

Low intensity electrical currents

54
Q

Gammaneuromodulation - transcranial direct current stimulation

A

Low intensity electrical currents

55
Q

Gammaneuromodulation - transcranial magnetic stimulation

A

Magnetic stimulation

56
Q

Gammaneuromodulation - neurofeedback

A

Participants view their own waveforms and learn how to regulate neural activity

57
Q

Options to address variability in aging affects

A

1) Minimize variability
2) Maximize variability by encouraging diversity and study the differences as moderators

58
Q

Pros and cons of minimizing variability

A

—pros: faster, easier, easy to interpret, will be consistent with prior research
—cons: minimizes generalizability and representation, misses potential treatments and pockets of preservation

59
Q

Pros and cons of maximizing variability

A

—pros: increases generalizability and representation, identify differences in treatments, better care/treatments for a greater cross-section of the population, help to identify the mechanisms of change
—cons: difficult to find representative samples, analyses more complex, requires overall larger samples

60
Q

History of diversity in research

A
  • misuse of cognitive psychology in early years (1800s-early 1900s)
    -1920s-1940s: behavioral psych, individual differences ignored
  • cognitive revolution: 1950s on, all humans are born with the same innate abilities, individual differences ignored
  • NIH revitalization act 1993: women and minorities must be included in research
  • 2001 amendment: guidelines for reporting on sex, gender, race, ethnicity
  • 2016 FDA year of diversity in clinical trials
61
Q

WEIRD psychology

A

Western
Educated
Industrialized countries
Rich countries
Democratic countries

62
Q

Obstacles to diversity

A
  • selectivity bias in participants (difficulties getting to lab, mistrust of science, awareness of research, biased screening)
  • lack of research enthusiasm (slows down research, increases variability/noise)
  • lack of diversity in those conducting research
63
Q

How to increase diversity in research

A
  • methodological changes
  • improve recruitment
  • support diversity among those conducting research
64
Q

Methodological changes to increase diversity

A
  • beware of selection bias (differences in overall health and survival in some minority groups)
  • utilize non-biased measures
  • be cautious with causal claims
  • used models designed to capture interactions across multiple levels of variables to consider the social context of risk factors
  • report all potentially relevant demographic information
65
Q

Recruitment to increase diversity

A
  • Develop partnerships with community organizations
  • Build 1:1 relationships - be honest about costs and benefits
  • Establish reciprocity: telling them how they are supporting their community
66
Q

Supporting researcher diversity

A

Faculty and new students

67
Q

Looking forward to increase diversity

A
  • participation remains low for racial and ethnic minorities, underrepresented groups like women, OA, low SES
  • AD research focused on diversity
68
Q

Sensory threshold (absolute and differential)

A

Absolute - point at which 50% of the time you detect a stimulus
Differential - amount of difference to distinguish between two stimuli 50% of the time; just noticeable difference

69
Q

Conversion of sound waves to neural signals

A

sound waves enter pinna and travel down ear canal -> waves vibrate the eardrum -> eardrum vibrates the ossicles -> vibrations cause fluids in the cochlea to ripple -> hair cells along the cochlea allow vibrations to be turned into nerve signals -> signals carried to the brain by the auditory nerve

70
Q

Presbycusis

A

Age-related hearing loss
-particularly with high frequency sounds and background noise

71
Q

Causes of age-related hearing loss

A

-impacted ear wax
-thickened ear drum
-occasional damage to ossicles
-damage to sensory hair cells

72
Q

conversion of light to neural signals

A

light passes through cornea -> light passes through pupil, iris controls pupil to let more or less light pass through -> lens focuses light onto retina ->retina converts light energy into a nerve signal -> optic nerve carries signal to brain

73
Q

Presbyopia

A

Age related loss of visual acuity (sharpness)
- problems with glare, brightness, and darkness, visual field gets smaller

74
Q

Causes of age-related vision loss

A
  • cornea is less transparent, less sensitive
  • lens hardens, becomes yellow and cloudy
  • pupil becomes smaller, reacts slower
  • muscles become less able to rotate the eye
75
Q

Sensory ARHL (causes and audiogram pattern)

A
  • deterioration of hair cells within the cochlea
  • normal hearing at lower frequencies and steep increase in thresholds at higher frequencies
76
Q

Metabolic ARHL (causes and audiogram pattern)

A
  • atrophy of the outer cochlear wall, impairs cochlear amplifier
  • some lower frequency loss and gradual increase in loss for higher frequency sounds
77
Q

Neural ARHL (causes and audiogram pattern)

A
  • atrophy of the spiral ganglion cells (sensory neurons)
  • audiogram not affected until significant levels of atrophy, dramatic decrease in speech differentiation
78
Q

Anatomical changes to auditory cortex

A
  • decreased GABA in auditory cortex
  • decreased volume and cortical thinning
79
Q

Functional changes to auditory cortex

A
  • Increased activation in OA compared to YA
  • Reduced connectivity between auditory cortex and visual regions, attention network, and default mode network
80
Q

Nonauditory cortical reorganization

A
  • greater atrophy in attention related regions (ACC)
  • Increased functional connectivity and increased recruitment of visual, motor, and attention networks
    -related to general cognitive impairment
81
Q

Common cause hypothesis

A

Biological aging affects global functioning, including both cognitive and sensory function

82
Q

Information degradation hypothesis

A

ARHL leads to increased cognitive demand, which can contribute to impaired cognitive function

83
Q

Sensory deprivation hypothesis

A

ARHL leads to cortical reorganization to support auditory perception, which can contribute to impaired cognitive function

Cognitive aging (2 decks)

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