QUIZ 2 Flashcards
refer to the natural physical and chemical phenomena that occur on and within the planet Earth
EARTH PROCESSES
These processes are responsible for shaping the landscape, producing natural
resources, and supporting life on Earth
EARTH PROCESSES
the movement of Earth’s lithospheric plates, which causes earthquakes, volcanic
activity, and the formation of mountain ranges
PLATE TECTONICS
the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the Earth’s surface, which
includes precipitation, evaporation, and the flow of water through rivers and aquifers.
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
the movement of nutrients and other chemicals through the Earth’s ecosystems,
including the carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles.
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
the movement of air and the formation of weather patterns, including storms, tornadoes,
and hurricanes
ATMOSPHERIC PROCESSES
the formation and transformation of rocks and minerals, including the formation of
sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks.
GEOLOGIC PROCESSES
the ways in which human activity affects the Earth’s processes, including deforestation,
pollution, and climate change
HUMAN IMPACTS
the breakdown of rocks and minerals on the Earth’s surface due to weather and the
movement of water and wind, which shapes the landscape and produces sediment.
WEATHERING AND EROSION
natural process of breaking down rocks, soils, and minerals on or near the Earth’s surface
WEATHERING
The primary purpose is to transform solid rock into smaller pieces and materials that can be
transported and incorporated into soils, sedimentary deposits, or other geologic formations
WEATHERING
disintegration of rock or mineral due to physical forces
Physical Weathering
TYPES OF WEATHERING
Physical Weathering
Chemical Weathering
Biological Weathering
breakdown of rock or mineral due to chemical reactions with water, air, and other
substances
Chemical Weathering
process of rock breakdown or alteration caused by living organisms such as plants and
animals
Biological Weathering
occurs when water seeps into cracks in rocks or the pores between soil particles and
freezes.
FREEZE-THAW WEATHERING
Rocks and sediment grinding against each other wear away surfaces
ABRASION
occurs when outer layers of rocks break off and the released pressure causes rock to
expand and break
EXFOLIATION
eaction of minerals with oxygen in the air, resulting in the formation of oxides
OXIDATION
this is the reaction of minerals with water to form new minerals
HYDROLYSIS
this is the reaction of minerals with carbon dioxide in the air or water, leading to the
formation of carbonate minerals
CARBONATION
This is the process of plant roots growing into cracks in rocks, exerting pressure and
causing them to break apart.
ROOT WEDGING
This is the process of animals such as rodents and earthworms digging into the soil
and breaking apart rocks in the process.
BURROWING ANIMALS
This is the process of microorganisms altering the chemical composition of minerals
in rocks, leading to their breakdown or transformation into new materials
BIOMINERALIZATION
GEOLOGICAL WORK BY RIVER
THREE WELL- DEFINED PHASES
- EROSION
- TRANSPORT
- DEPOSITION
FACTORS AFFECTING WEATHERING
CLIMATE
TOPOGRAPHY
ROCK TYPE
TIME
HUMAN ACTIVITY
Stream and rivers are the most powerful sub aerial agents of ______. Others are wind and ice
EROSION
carrying away of particles (rocks/ soils/ sediments) by means of mechanical disintegration or chemical decomposition of rocks
EROSION
These are various shaped depressions of different dimensions that are developed in the
river bed by excessive localized erosion by the stream.
potholes
The formation process for a pothole may be initiated by a simple plucking out of a
_______ or outstanding rock projection at the river bed by hydraulic action.
protruding
Low land surrounded on sides by inclined hill slopes and mountain.
VALLEYS AND RIVERS
Every major river is associated with a _____ of its own.
valley
Magnificent jumps made by stream or river water
WATERFALLS
Many falls are easily attributed to __________ of the channel rocks within a short
distance due to the inherent nature of the rocks
unequal erosion
THE TRANSPORT SYSTEM of rivers
- BED LOAD
- SUSPENDED LOAD
- DISSOLVED LOAD
This fraction of the river loads comprises the heavier particles of sand, pebbles, gravels
and cobbles and other type of materials which are moved along the other side of the
roads.
BED LOAD
It is made up of fine sand, silt and clay sediments that are light enough to be transported
in the stream water in a state of suspension.
SUSPENDED LOAD
material is transported in a solution condition
DISSOLVED LOAD
The process of dropping down of its loads by any moving natural agent is technically called
DEPOSITION BY RIVERS
important natural agent that make typical deposits.
Wind rivers, glaciers and marine water
if the deposit is spread over a large area and has a gentle slope
alluvial fan
If the deposit is spread over a small area but has a relatively steep slope, it is called an
alluvial cone
These are essentially riverbank deposits made by a river along its bank during floods
NATURAL LEVEES
this Sometimes helpful in preventing further flooding
NATURAL LEVEES
Defined as alluvial deposits of roughly triangular shape that are deposited by major river at
their mouth where they enter a sea.
DELTAS
Many streams are forced by some natural causes to deposit some of their loads along the
river bed. These are so-called
CHANNEL DEPOSITS
They are of great economical use being the source of sands and gravel quite suitable for use
as construction materials.
CHANNEL DEPOSITS
Air in motion
wind
acts as an agent of erosion, as a carrier for transporting
particles and grains that is eroded from one place, and also for depositing huge quantities of
such wind-blown material at different places.
wind
DIFFERENT WORKS OF WIND
- WIND EROSION
- DEFLATION
- ABRASION
- ATTRITION
It is a process by which soil particles are detached and displaced by the erosive forces of the wind
WIND EROSION
Wind performs the work of erosion by at least three different methods
Deflation, abrasion,
and attrition.
Wind posses not much erosive power over rocks the ground covered with vegetation. But
when moving with sufficient velocity over dry and loose sand it can remove or swept away
huge quantity of the loose material from the surface
DEFLATION
Wind becomes a powerful agent for rubbing and abrading the rock surface when naturally
loaded with sand and dust particles This type of erosion involves rubbing, grinding, and
polishing the rock surface
ABRASION
The sand particles and other particles lifted by the wind from different places are carried away
to considerable distances. The wear and tear of load particles suffered by them due to mutual
impacts during the transportation process is termed as
ATTRITION
The wind is an active agent of sediment transport in nature. Materials of fine particle size such
as Clay, silt and sand occurring on surface of the earth are transported in huge volumes from
one place to another in different regions of the world
SEDIMENTATION TRANSPORT BY WIND
- The transporting power of wind depends on its
velocity as also on the size, shape and density
of the particles.
METHODS OF TRANSPORTING SEDIMENTS
- SUSPENSION
- SALTATION
The heavier and coarse sediments such as sand grains, pebbles, and gravel are lifted up
periodically during high-velocity wind only for a short distance. They may be dropped off and
picked up again and again during the transport process
SALTATION
The light-density clay and silt particles may be lifted by the wind from the ground and are
carried high up to the upper layer of the wind where they move along with the wind.
SUSPENSION
These are variously shaped deposits of sand-grade particles accumulated by the wind. A
typical sand ____ is defined as a broad conical heap. A dune is normally developed when a
sand-laden wind comes across some
DUNES
Loess is an
n unconsolidated, unstratified, and porous accumulation of particles
s used for wind-blown deposits of silt and clay-grade particles
loess
large bodies of saltwater that cover about 71% of the Earth’s surface.
SEA
significantly influence the design and construction of infrastructure along coastlines and in
offshore environments.
SEAS
TYPES OF SEAS
- MARGINAL SEAS
- INTERCONTINENTAL SEAS
- ENCLOSED SEAS
located along the continental margins and are separated from the open ocean by islands or
narrow straits
MARGINAL SEAS
GEOLOGY OF SEAS
- EROSION
- DEPOSITION
- TECTONIC ACTIVITY
located between two continents, such as the Mediterranean Sea.
INTERCONTINENTAL SEAS
like the Red Sea or the Persian Gulf, are surrounded by land on three sides. Inland seas, like the Caspian Sea, are in landlocked regions.
ENCLOSED SEAS
is a process by which waves and currents wear away the coastline and remove sediments. This
can lead to changes in the shape of coastlines, as well as the loss of sediment that can act as
a natural buffer against waves and storm surges
EROSION
can alter the shape and
composition of coastlines and can also impact the stability of structures built on top of
deposited sediments.
DEPOSITION
can also expose previously buried
geological features, such as faults or unconformities
*EROSION
s the opposite of erosion and occurs when sediments are added to the coastline. This can be
a natural process, such as when rivers deposit sediment at the mouth of the river, or it can be
the result of human activities, such as dredging
DEPOSITION
such as earthquakes or volcanic eruptions, can also impact the geology of seas. These
processes can cause changes in the sea floor, alter the position of coastlines, and lead to the
formation of new geological features, such as submarine canyons or seamounts.
TECTONIC ACTIVITY
this erosion can have significant impacts on coastal infrastructure,
including buildings, roads, and harbors, and can also lead to the loss of beaches and habitats.
COASTAL EROSION
the process by which the shoreline is gradually worn away by the actions of waves, storms,
and human activities.
COASTAL EROSION
CAUSES OF COASTAL EROSION:
Wave action
Storms
Human activities
EFFECTS COASTAL EROSION
✓ Loss of beaches and coastal habitats
✓ Damage to coastal infrastructure
✓ Increased vulnerability to storm
✓ surges and flooding
ENGINEERING MEASURES TO PREVENT COASTAL EROSION:
Seawalls
Breakwaters
Beach Nourishment
re walls built parallel to the shoreline to protect the land behind them from wave
action. They are typically made of concrete, steel, or stone.
Seawalls
structures built offshore to protect the coast from wave action. They can be made of concrete,
steel, or stone and are designed to dissipate wave energy before it reaches the shoreline
Breakwaters
is the process of adding sand or other sediment to a beach to replenish sand that has been
lost due to erosion. This is often done through dredging and can help maintain the natural
coastline.
Beach Nourishment
(also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the shaking of the surface of the Earth resulting
from a sudden release of energy in the Earth’s lithosphere that creates seismic waves.
EARTHQUAKE
- place of origin of the earthquake in the interior of the earth.
FOCUS/HYPOCENTER
place on the earth’s surface, which lies exactly above the center of the
earthquake.
EPICENTER
The enormous energy released from the focus at the same time of the
earthquake is transmitted in directions in the form of waves
SEISMIC WAVES
An imaginary line joining the points of same intensity of the earthquake is called
an
ISOSEISMAL
An imaginary line which joins the points at which the earthquake waves have
arrived at the earth’s surface
COSEISMAL
The imaginary line which joins the center and the epicenter
SEISMIC VERTICAL
a fracture in rocks that make up the earth’s crust.
FAULT
TYPES OF FAULT
NORMAL FAULTS
REVERSE FAULTS
STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS
the generally accepted scientific theory that considers the Earth’s lithosphere to
comprise a number of large tectonic plates which have been slowly moving since about 3.4 billion years ago.
PLATE TECTONICS
occur mainly in areas where the crust is being extended such as a
divergent boundary
NORMAL FAULTS
occur in areas where the crust is being shortened such as at a convergent
boundary
REVERSE FAULTS
are steep structures where the two sides of the fault slip horizontally
past each other; transform boundaries are a particular type of
STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS
CLASSIFICATION AND CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES
TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES
NON TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES
are generally due to external or surficial causes. (Of course, earthquakes which occur due to
volcanic eruptions
NON-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES
exclusively due to internal causes, i.e. due to disturbances or adjustments of geological
formations taking place in the earth’s interior.
TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES
NON TECTONIC CAUSES
Due to huge waterfalls
Due to avalanches
Due to meteorites:
. Due to the occurrence of sudden and major landslides:
Due to volcanic eruption
Due to tsunamis
Due to manmade explosions
due to collapse of caves, tunnels, etc.
is proportional to the energy released by an earthquake at the focus
MAGNITUDE
It is calculated from earthquakes recorded by an instrument called seismograph. It is represented by Arabic Numbers (e.g. 4.8, 9.0).
MAGNITUDE
is the strength of an earthquake as perceived and felt by people in a certain locality. It is a
numerical rating based on the relative effects to people, objects, environment, and structures in the surrounding.
INTENSITY
is generally higher near the epicenter. It is represented by Roman
Numerals
INTENSITY
variously called primary waves, push-pull waves, preliminary waves, longitudinal waves,
Compressional waves, etc. These are the fastest among the seismic waves
P WAVES
They travel as fast as 8 to
13 km per second. Therefore, when an earthquake occurs, these are the first waves to reach any
seismic station and hence the first to be recorded.
P WAVES
Factors affecting the intensity of earthquake
- Distance from the epicenter.
- Compactness of the underlying ground.
- Types of construction.
- Magnitude of earthquake.
- Duration of the earthquake.
- Depth of the focus.
resemble sound waves because these
too are compressional or longitudinal waves in nature.
P WAVES
These are also called shear waves, secondary waves, transverse waves, etc. Compared to P. waves,
these are relatively slow
S WAVES
They travel at the rate of 5 to 7 km per second. For this reason, these waves
are always recorded after P waves in a seismic station.
S WAVES
These are called long waves or surface waves. These are the slowest among the seismic waves. Therefore, these are the last to be recorded in the seismic station at the time of occurrence of the Earthquake
L WAVES
L WAVES are complex in nature and are said to
be of two kinds
Rayleigh waves and Love waves
water under the ground where the soil is completely filled with water
Groundwater
They travel at the rate of 4 to 5 km per second. These are called surface waves because
their journey is confined to the surface of the earth only.
L WAVES
GROUND WATER CONCEPT
Water seeps downward through permeable rock layers, undergoing natural filtration.
Accumulates in the zone of saturation, where all rock pores contain water.
The water table marks the upper boundary of the saturated zone.
moves slowly. 1 mm – 1.6 km per day
Groundwater
describes the size, shape, arrangement, cementation, and compaction of surface
materia
POROSITY
Indicates whether water can pass through a
subsurface material.
Permeability
- helps keep rivers, lakes and wetlands full of water
Groundwater
A rock layer that stores and transmits groundwater.
Aquifer:
Composed of solid rock, such as limestone
or sandstone.
Consolidated aquifer
Made of loose sand and gravel.
Unconsolidated aquifer
IMPORTANCE OF GROUNDWATER IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
Ground Settlement: Structural movement due to groundwater extraction.
Water Level & Flow Changes: Underground structures may disrupt flow patterns.
Water Quality Changes: Contaminants from surface water can seep into groundwater.
GROUNDWATER AND SOIL
STABILITY
The bearing capacity of soil is significantly influenced by groundwater levels.
If the water table is too close to the foundation, soil strength decreases.
Geotechnical reports help engineers determine safe foundation conditions.
HOW GROUNDWATER AFFECTS
CONSTRUCTION
Engineers must assess groundwater risks before, during, and after construction.
Excavations and foundations below the water table may:
- Change groundwater flow and lower water supply to nearby wetlands and wells.
- Act as a barrier, potentially leading to flooding if water builds up.
COMMON GROUNDWATER ISSUES
DURING CONSTRUCTION
Unstable ground conditions.
Water seepage into excavations, requiring removal.
Solutions:
Using sump pumps to drain water from excavation sites.
Installing well-point systems to lower groundwater levels.
COMMON GROUNDWATER
PROBLEMS AFTER
CONSTRUCTION
Structural issues like cracked walls and floors.
Water intrusion, causing wet basements and mold
growth.
Slope instability, affecting retaining walls.
Construction cost overruns due to unexpected
groundwater challenges.
IMPORTANCE OF
WATERPROOFING &
DRAINAGE
Below-grade structures (e.g., basements) must be waterproofed.
Concrete structures are prone to cracking, allowing moisture
intrusion.
Proper drainage design helps manage water flow around
buildings.
THE ROLE OF ENGINEERS
Engineers oversee planning, budgeting, and
execution of projects.
They must evaluate groundwater risks to prevent
structural failures and delays.
Effective groundwater management ensures safe,
stable, and cost-efficient construction.
also known
as geological processes, are dynamic
processes at work in Earth’s
landforms and surfaces.
Earth processes
The mechanism involved,
_____________ that is in respects destructive and in others
some constructive.
weathering, erosion, and plate-
tectonics-combined processes
Two divisions of geological processes:
*Exogenous Processes
*Endogenous Processes
These are forces that come from
outside the Earth, like wind, water,
and temperature changes.
Exogenous Processes (External Forces)
They
slowly shape the land by breaking
down and moving rocks and soil.
Exogenous Processes (External Forces)
They are responsible for the formation of mountains, volcanoes, and earthquakes.
Endogenous Processes (Internal Forces)
example of Exogenous Processes (External Forces)
Weathering
Erosion
Deposition
*These are forces that come from inside the Earth and cause major changes in the landscape.
Endogenous Processes (Internal Forces)
examples of Endogenous Processes (Internal Forces)
Tectonic movements
Volcanism
Earthquakes
