quiz 2 Flashcards
1
Q
what is classical conditioning?
A
a neutral stimulus results in a response after it is paired with an unconditioned stimulus that would naturally result in that response
2
Q
what is a neutral stimulus?
A
a stimulus that does not naturally result in the desired response before conditioning
3
Q
what is an unconditioned stimulus?
A
a stimulus that naturally results in a particular response without having been learned
4
Q
what is an unconditioned response?
A
a response that is natural
5
Q
what is a conditioned stimulus?
A
a stimuli that results in a particular response after being conditioned
6
Q
what is a conditioned response?
A
a response that happens after being conditioned
7
Q
what is extinction?
A
when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears
8
Q
what is spontaneous recovery?
A
when the previously conditioned response doesn’t completely disappear
9
Q
what is stimulus generalization?
A
when stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response
10
Q
what is stimulus discrimination?
A
when one stimulus evokes a conditioned response but another stimulus (that is distinct from the first one) does not
11
Q
what is learned taste aversion?
A
people develop food aversions to food that are followed by nausea or illness
12
Q
what is operant conditioning?
A
learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened
13
Q
what is shaping?
A
the process of teaching a complex behaviour by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behaviour
14
Q
what is positive reinforcement?
A
a stimulus added to the environment that results in an increase in a behaviour
15
Q
what is a negative reinforcement?
A
an (unpleasant) stimulus removed from the environmentincreases chances the behaviour will be repeated
16
Q
what is a positive punishment?
A
introducing an unpleasant stimulus that decreases the frequency of a certain behaviour
17
Q
what is a negative punishment?
A
removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease the frequency of a behaviour
18
Q
what is a primary reinforcer?
A
reinforcers that satisfy biological needs and work naturally
19
Q
what is a secondary reinforcer?
A
stimuli that become reinforcing because of its association with a primary reinforcer
20
Q
what is stimulus control training?
A
where a behaviour is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus, but not in its absence
21
Q
what are the schedules of reinforcement?
A
- fixed-ratio & variable-ratio schedules
- fixed-interval & variable-ratio schedules
- continuous reinforcement
- partial reinforcement
22
Q
what is a fixed-ratio schedule?
A
a schedule by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made
23
Q
what is a variable-ratio schedule?
A
a schedule by which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses
24
Q
what is a fixed-interval schedule?
A
a schedule that provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time has elapsed
25
what is a variable-interval schedule?
a schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies
26
what is continuous reinforcement?
reinforcing a behaviour each time it occurs
27
what is partial reinforcement?
reinforcing a behaviour some (but not all) of the time
28
what is the influence of reinforcement schedules on responding?
- variable-ratio schedules produce a high rate of response and is more resistant to extinction than fixed-ratio schedules
- variable-interval schedules produce steady rates of responding amd take longer to extinguish after reinforcement ends
29
what is the risk of using physical punishment?
it conveys the idea that physical aggression is acceptable or desirable
30
what is cognitive learning?
focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning
31
what is latent learning?
a new behaviour being acquired but not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it
32
what is observational learning?
observing the behaviour of another person, or model (and learning from it)
33
what is the relationship between violent media consumption and real world aggression?
experiencing high levels of media violence makes viewers more susceptible to behaving aggressively
34
what is encoding?
the initial process of recording information in a form usable to memory
35
what is storage?
the maintenance of material saved in memory
36
what is retrieval?
the process of material in memory storage being located and brought to awareness
37
what is sensory memory?
the initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant
38
what is short-term memory?
memory that holds information for 15 to 25 seconds
39
what is working memory?
the memory system that holds information for a short time while actively rehearsing that information
40
what is long-term memory?
memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis
41
what is the levels of processing theory?
the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed
42
what is the difference between superficial processing and deep processing?
superficial is processed in terms of its physical and sensory aspects while deep is info analyzed in terms of its meaning
43
what is the impact of levels of processing on memory?
the greater the intensity, the more likely we are to remember it
44
what is rehearsal?
the repetition of information that has entered short-term memory
45
what is rehearsal maintenance?
simply repeating the stimuli exactly word for word (or number for number, sound for sound, etc.)
46
what is elaborative rehearsal?
when info is considered and organized in some fashion
47
what is chunking?
grouping of stimuli that can be stored as a unit in short-term memory
48
what is the serial position effect?
the ability to recall info in a list depends on where in the list the info appears
49
what is the primacy effect?
the items listed earlier in a list are remembered better
50
what is the recency effect?
the items listed later in a list being remembered better
51
what is declarative memory?
factual information: names, faces, dates, etc.
52
what is non-declarative memory?
skills and habits, such as riding a bike or hitting a baseball (also called procedural memory)
53
what is implicit memory?
memories of which people are not consciously aware but that can affect subsequent performance and behaviour
54
what is explicit memory?
intentional or conscious recollection of information
55
what is semantic memory?
general knowledge and facts about the world, as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other facts
56
what is episodic memory?
events that occur in a particular time, place, or context
57
how do indigenous traditions relate to memory?
stories are re-enacted rather than simply told, resulting in memories being stored in episodic rather than semantic memory
58
what is a flashbulb memory?
centered on a specific, important, or surprising event that are so vivid it is as if they represented a snapshot of the event
59
what is procedural memory?
skills and habits, such as riding a bike or hitting a baseball
60
how do the hippocampus and consolidation relate?
aids in the initial encoding of info
61
what is the role of the amygdala?
involved in memories involving emotion
62
what is long-term potentiation?
certain neural pathways become excited when a new response is learned, while changes occur in the number of synapses as the dendrites branch out to receive messages
63
what are memory traces?
where we can find areas where memory might be in the brain
64
what is the role of sleep in memory?
non-REM brainwaves transport memory packets from the hippocampus to the cortex
65
what are retrieval cues?
any stimulus that allows us to recall more easily information that is already in long-term memory
66
what are mnemonics?
formal techniques for organizing information in a way that makes it more likely to be remembered
67
what is priming?
when exposure to a word or concept makes it easier to recall related info later
68
why do we forget?
frees up space and failure of encoding
69
what is ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve?
forgetting is extremely rapid immediately after the original learning, then levels off
70
what is decay?
when we lose information because we don’t use it
71
what is proactive interference?
when info learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer material
72
what is retroactive interference?
when there is difficulty in the recall of info learned earlier because of later exposure to different material
73
what is retrograde amnesia?
memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event
74
what is anterograde amnesia?
memory is lost for events that follow a certain event
75
what are errors in eyewitness testimony?
the wording of questions posed to them by police officers or lawyers can affect the way they recall information
76
what are prototypes?
highly representative examples of a concept
77
what are concepts?
mental groupings of similar objects, events, people, which allows us to organize complex phenomena into simpler, easily usable, cognitive categories
78
what is means-ends?
is repeatedly testing for differences between current state and goal state
79
what is a heuristic?
strategies that might lead to a solution, but can also lead to errors
80
what are algorithms?
strategies that guarantee a solution
81
what is a transformation problem?
requires you to carry out a specific sequence of transformations to reach the goal
82
what is an inducing structure problem?
requires you to discover trends or relationships among numbers, symbols, ideas, etc.
83
what is an arrangement problem?
requires you to rearrange the parts of a problem to meet a specific criterion
84
what is irrelevant information?
when we incorrectly assume all the info provided is correct
85
what is a mental set?
when we are stuck in a specific way of problem-solving, which prevents the ability to generate new strategies
86
what is functional fixedness?
the tendency to perceive an item only in its most common use
87
what is the availability heuristic?
judging the probability of an event by how easily the event can be recalled from memory
88
what is the representativeness heuristic?
when we judge people by the degree which they represent a certain category/group of people
89
what is divergent thinking?
the ability to generate unusual, yet appropriate responses
90
what is the relationship between divergent thinking and creativity?
creativity and intelligence are not closely related
91
how does the framing of a problem change our approach to solving it?
wording an answer in a certain way will make someone more likely to choose one over the other
92
what is grammar?
a system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed
93
what are phonemes?
the smallest units of speech
94
what is syntax?
rules that indicate how words and phrases can be combined to make sentences
95
what are semantics?
rules governing the meaning of words and sentences
96
at what age do children begin to babble?
6-18 months
97
what is the age at which children use telegraphic speech?
2 years
98
what are overgeneralization errors?
when children apply language rules even when the application results in an error
99
what does the phrase 'comprehension precedes production' mean?
children do not attain a full vocab and the ability to comprehend and use subtle grammatical rules until after age 5
100
what is the nativist theory?
all humans are born with an innate linguistic capability, and we possess a language-acquisition device, which gives us strategies and techniques for learning our native language
101
what is the learning theory?
language follows principles of reinforcement and conditioning
102
what is the interactionist theory?
language development is produced through a combination of genetics and environmental circumstances
103
what are the advantages of bilingualism?
total vocabulary is similar to monolingual children, and more cognitive flexibility and analytical reasoning
104
what does dr. bialystok say about bilingualism?
- higher levels of controlled processing
- cognitive control to juggle two languages relatively easy
- delayed onset of dementia by 4 years
105
what is the g/g-factor?
the single factor for mental ability, and underlies intelligence
106
what is the triarchic model?
3 levels of intelligence: analytical, practical, creative
107
what is the theory of multiple intelligences?
there are 8 types of independent intelligences: logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist
108
what is emotional intelligence?
a set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression and regulation of emotions
109
what are achievement tests?
designed to determine a person's level of knowledge in a specific area
110
what are aptitude tests?
designed to predict a person's ability in a specific area
111
are there group differences in intelligence?
members of certain racial/ethnic groups score lower on intelligence tests, as well as women, but that does not necessarily mean they are less intelligent
112
what is the range of reaction theory of intelligence?
every individual responds to the environment in a unique way, based on their genetic makeup
