Quiz 2

Question 1

Loftus and Zanni

Answer 1

Suggestive/leading questioning can influence responses

Question 2

High stress levels

Answer 2

result in poorer memory for both the perpetrator’s appearance and other crime details

Question 3

The race of the eyewitness

Answer 3

Eyewitnesses are better able to correctly identify a member of their own race compared to a member of a different race

Question 4

weapon focus

Answer 4

If a weapon is present, witnesses often focus on that (a term called weapon focus) and therefore have a less reliable memory for other aspects of the crime (Saunders, 2009).

Question 5

Estimator variables

Answer 5

are those variables or factors that are present at the time of the crime and cannot be changed.

Question 6

System variables

Answer 6

are those variables or factors that can be manipulated to increase (or decrease) eyewitness accuracy, such as the type of procedure used by police to interview the witness or the type of lineup procedure used to present the suspect to the witness.

Question 7

Open-ended recall

Answer 7

witnesses are asked to either write or orally state all they remember about the event without the officer (or experimenter) asking questions.

Question 8

Direct question recall

Answer 8

witnesses are asked a series of specific questions about the crime or the perpetrator.

Question 9

perpetrator lineup

Answer 9

a set of people presented to the witness, who in turn must identify the perpetrator if they are present.

Question 10

Clothing lineups

Answer 10

the witness examines clothing that may have been worn by the perpetrator, are sometimes also used.

Question 11

Fisher and colleagues (1987)

Answer 11

They analyzed 11 tape-recorded interviews from a police department in Florida. Eight detectives, who averaged 10.5 years of experience each, conducted these interviews. The researchers found a lot of variation in how the interviews were conducted. In general, however, the researchers found that the officers would introduce themselves, ask the eyewitnesses to report what they remembered by using an open-ended format, and then ask the witnesses a series of direct questions to determine specific information, such as the age or height of the perpetrator.

Question 12

Memory Conformity (Douglass & Pavletic, 2011)

Answer 12

Witnesses can be “contaminated” if they know what other witnesses have reported. What one witness says about a crime can affect what another witness will say if those witnesses communicate with one another or come to learn what the other has reported

Question 13

The misinformation effect, also called the Post-event information effect

Answer 13

is a phenomenon in which a witness who is presented with inaccurate information after an event will incorporate that misinformation into a subsequent recall task (Loftus, 1975).

Question 14

cognitive interview

Answer 14

The cognitive interview can be used with eyewitnesses, but it is not a procedure recommended for use with unwilling participants, such as suspects. The cognitive interview is based on four memory retrieval techniques to increase recall: (1) reinstating the context, (2) reporting everything, (3) reversing order, and (4) changing perspective.

Question 15

enhanced cognitive interview

Answer 15

including various principles of social dynamics in addition to the memory retrieval principles used in the original cognitive interview.

Question 16

Foils or Distractors

Answer 16

placing a suspect in a lineup, other lineup members may be included. Can use similarity to suspect or match to description. These people are innocent of the crime.

Question 17

target-present lineup

Answer 17

A lineup that contains the perpetrator

Question 18

target-absent lineup

Answer 18

the lineup does not contain perpetrator but rather an innocent suspect

Question 19

Reasons why photo arrays are more common than lineups

Answer 19

-Less time-consuming
-They are portable
-Suspect does not have to present
-Photos are static
-Witness will be less anxious

Question 20

simultaneous lineup

Answer 20

The simultaneous procedure presents all lineup members at one time to the witness.

Question 21

relative judgment

Answer 21

lineup members are compared with one another and the person who looks most like the perpetrator is identified.

Question 22

sequential lineup

Answer 22

involves presenting the lineup members serially to the witness.

Question 23

absolute judgment

Answer 23

each lineup member is compared with the witness’ memory of the perpetrator and the witness decides whether it is the perpetrator.

Question 24

showup

Answer 24

This procedure shows one person to the witness: the suspect. The witness is asked whether the person is the perpetrator.

Question 25

walk-by

Answer 25

This identification occurs in a naturalistic environment. The police take the witness to a public location where the suspect is likely to be. Once the suspect is in view, the witness is asked whether they see the perpetrator.

Question 26

Lineup Biases

Answer 26

1. Foil bias. The suspect is the only lineup member who matches the description of the perpetrator. For example, the suspect has a beard and moustache while the other lineup members are clean-shaven (Lindsay, Lea, & Fulford, 1991). 2. Clothing bias. The suspect is the only lineup member wearing clothing similar to that worn by the perpetrator. For example, the perpetrator was described as wearing a blue baseball cap. The suspect is wearing a blue baseball cap while the foils are not (Dysart, Lindsay, & Dupuis, 2006; Lindsay et al., 1991; Lindsay, Wallbridge, & Drennan, 1987). 3. Instruction bias. The police fail to mention to the witness that the perpetrator may not be present; rather, the police imply that the perpetrator is present and that the witness should pick them out (Clark, 2005; Malpass & Devine, 1981; Steblay, 1997).

Question 27

cross-race effect, also known as the other-race effect and the own-race bias

Answer 27

the phenomenon of witnesses remembering faces of people of their own race with greater accuracy than they remember faces of people of other races

Question 28

Weapon focus

Answer 28

the term used to describe the phenomenon of a witness’ attention being focused on the perpetrator’s weapon rather than on the perpetrator (Steblay, 1992)

Question 29

cue-utilization hypothesis

Answer 29

explain why a witness may focus on the weapon rather than other details. The hypothesis suggests that when emotional arousal increases, attentional capacity decreases.

Question 30

anatomically detailed dolls

Answer 30

anatomically detailed dolls to see if child has been sexually abused , sometimes like a rag doll, are consistent with the male or female anatomy. Dolls may be of an adult male or female or a young male or female.

Question 31

narrative elaboration

Answer 31

With this procedure, children learn to organize stories into relevant categories: Participants, Settings, Actions, Conversation/affective states, Consequences

Question 32

False memory syndrome

Answer 32

a term coined to describe clients’ false beliefs that they were sexually abused as children. Clients may have no memories of this abuse until they enter therapy to deal with some other psychological problem, such as depression or substance abuse (Read, 1999)

Question 33

elimination lineup

Answer 33

The elimination lineup procedure requests two judgments from the child: All lineup photos are presented to the child, and the child is asked to select the lineup member who looks most like the culprit (relative judgment). Once this decision is made, the remaining photos are removed.The child is asked to compare their memory of the culprit with the most similar photo selected in the first stage and to decide if the photo is of the culprit (absolute judgment).

Question 34

in need of protection

Answer 34

used to describe a child’s need to be separated from their caregiver because of maltreatment.

Question 35

representativeness

Answer 35

A composition that represents the community in which the crime occurred

Question 36

impartiality.

Answer 36

A lack of bias on the part of jurors,

Question 37

adjournment

Answer 37

delaying the trial until sometime in the future

Question 38

jury nullification

Answer 38

there are cases in which the jury will ignore that law and the evidence and render a verdict based on some other criteria.

Question 39

Chaos theory

Answer 39

predicts that when jurors are guided by their emotions and personal biases rather than by the law, chaos in judgments results

Question 40

Archives

Answer 40

Records of trials, such as transcripts and police interviews of witnesses, can be reviewed to uncover relationships among variables.

Question 41

Simulation

Answer 41

One of the most common methodologies used to investigate jury issues is simulation. Researchers simulate a trial, or aspects of it, by using a written, audio, or video format. Participants are presented with the trial information, and the researcher can vary and manipulate this trial information.

Question 42

Field Studies

Answer 42

This methodology involves using actual jurors while they are serving on jury duty, so cooperation from the courts and the jurors is required. Researchers are able to observe variables of interest as they are occurring.

Question 43

deliberation

Answer 43

the jurors discuss the evidence privately among themselves to reach a verdict, which is then provided to the court.

Question 44

Note-taking juror

Answer 44

No negative impact

Question 45

Kassin and Sommers

Answer 45

concluded that jurors will disregard evidence when they are provided with a logical and legitimate reason for the judge’s decision to disregard it.

Question 46

Four reforms for judges’ instructions have been proposed

Answer 46

(1) rewriting instructions, (2) providing a written copy of the instructions to jurors, (3) providing jurors with pre- and post-evidence instructions, and (4) having lawyers clarify legal instructions during their presentation to the jury.

Question 47

MATHEMATICAL MODELS 

Answer 47

he common theme with mathematical models is that they view jurors as conducting a set of mental calculations regarding the importance and strength of each piece of evidence

Question 48

EXPLANATION MODELS

Answer 48

In contrast to mathematical models, explanation models suggest that evidence is organized into a coherent whole. Pennington and Hastie’s (1986) explanation approach is called the story model

Question 49

polarization

Answer 49

when individuals tend to become more extreme in their initial position following a group discussion (Baron & Bryne, 1991).

Question 50

leniency bias

Answer 50

whereby jurors move toward greater leniency following deliberations (MacCoun & Kerr, 1988).

Question 51

hung jury

Answer 51

A Canadian jury must reach a unanimous criminal verdict. If it cannot, the jury is said to be a hung jury or deadlocked, and a mistrial is declared.

Question 52

Demographic Variables

Answer 52

Variables such as the gender, race, socioeconomic status, and education of jurors are demographic variables that have been examined, in part because they are readily available to attorneys but also because they can be used to challenge witnesses.

Question 53

Racial bias

Answer 53

disparate treatment of racial outgroups. Participants were more likely to render guilty verdicts for “other-race” defendants than for defendants of their own race.

Question 54

black sheep effect

Answer 54

When the evidence was strong, race similarity between defendant and jury led to punitiveness.

Question 55

Unfortunately, when using juror demographic variables to predict verdicts

Answer 55

results are less than reliable

Question 56

mall relationship between the attractiveness of the defendant and..

Answer 56

Jury verdict

Question 57

if jurors hear about a defendant’s prior criminal record that contains one or more convictions,..

Answer 57

they are more likely to find the defendant guilty than if they did not have this knowledge

Question 58

R. v. Darrach (2000)

Answer 58

Darrach appealed his conviction, arguing that he did not receive a fair trial because he was unable to present information about his prior sexual history with the accuser. Darrach stated that, given his past relationship with the accused, he thought that the sexual encounter was consensual.

Question 59

What influence does expert evidence have on jurors’ decisions?

Answer 59

Gender, age, complexity

Question 60

actus reus

Answer 60

a wrongful deed

Question 61

mens rea

Answer 61

criminal intent

Question 62

unfit to stand trial

Answer 62

refers to a defendant’s inability to conduct a defence at any stage of the proceedings on account of a mental disorder.

Question 63

R. v. Balliram (2003)

Answer 63

it was concluded that an unfit person could not be sentenced. The degree of impairment necessary for an unfit determination has been difficult to pinpoint, however.

Question 64

R. v. Taylor (1992

Answer 64

In this case, the Ontario Court of Appeal stated that the test to be applied in terms of “communication with counsel” is with regard to limited cognitive capacity. The court ruled that a defendant need only be able to state the facts relating to the offence that would allow an appropriate defence.

Question 65

Competency Screening Test (CST)

Answer 65

has 22 uncompleted sentences that the respondent must finish. For example, The lawyer told Bill that . . .When I go to court the lawyer will . . .Jack felt that the judge . . . The items measure three constructs: the potential for a constructive relationship between the defendant and their lawyer, the defendant’s understanding of the court process, and the ability of the defendant to emotionally cope with the criminal process.

Question 66

Competency to Stand Trial Assessment Instrument (CAI)

Answer 66

semi-structured interview and constitutes a comprehensive competency evaluation. The CAI assesses 13 functions corresponding to a defendant’s ability to participate in the criminal process on behalf of their best interests. Each function is represented in a statement with two or three sample questions that the evaluator may pose to the defendant.

Question 67

Interdisciplinary Fitness Interview (IFI)

Answer 67

the IFI is a semi-structured interview measuring three areas of competency: functional memory, appropriate relationship with attorney, and understanding of the justice system. There are four main sections to the IFI: Section A: Legal itemsSection B: Psychopathological itemsSection C: Overall evaluationSection D: Consensual judgment

Question 68

MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool—Criminal Adjudication (MacCAT-CA)

Answer 68

The MacCAT-CA (Hoge, Bonnie, Poythress, & Monahan, 1992) is a structured interview containing 22 items that assess competencies in three areas: Factual understanding of the legal system and the adjudication processReasoning abilityUnderstanding of own legal situation and circumstances

Question 69

How Is Fitness Restored?

Answer 69

When a defendant is found unfit to stand trial, the goal of the criminal justice system is to get the defendant fit. The most common form of treatment for fitness is medication.

Question 70

What Happens after a Finding of Unfitness?

Answer 70

The proceedings against a defendant who is found unfit to stand trial are halted until competency is restored.

Question 71

prima facie case

Answer 71

the Crown must prove that there is sufficient evidence to bring the case to trial

Question 72

Insanity

Answer 72

Impairment of mental or emotional functioning that effects perceptions, beliefs, and motivations at the time of the offence.

Question 73

Review boards

Answer 73

legal bodies were mandated to oversee the care and disposition of defendants found unfit or NCRMD. Review boards were required to review each unfit and NCRMD case every year.

Question 74

Richard Rogers developed the first standardized assessment scales for criminal responsibility: the Rogers Criminal Responsibility Assessment Scales (R-CRAS; Rogers, 1984). The R-CRAS is the only instrument of its kind. It has five scales:

Answer 74

Patient reliability, Organicity, Psychopathology, Cognitive control, Behavioural control

Question 75

absolute discharge

Answer 75

the defendant is released into the community without restrictions on their behaviour.

Question 76

conditional discharge

Answer 76

defendant is released but must meet certain conditions, such as not possessing firearms. Failure to meet the conditions imposed with a conditional discharge may result in the defendant being incarcerated or sent to a psychiatric facility.

Question 77

capping

Answer 77

which refers to the maximum period of time a person with a mental illness can be affected by their disposition.

Question 78

Automatism

Answer 78

refers to unconscious, involuntary behaviour; that is, the person committing the act is not aware of what they are doing.

Question 79

community treatment order

Answer 79

allows the offender who has a mental illness to live in the community, with the stipulation that they will agree to treatment or detention in the event that their condition deteriorates.

Question 80

diversion

Answer 80

diverting the offenders directly into a treatment program rather than having them go through the court process.

Question 81

Women had higher rates of mood personality disorders, whereas men had higher rates of...

Answer 81

psychotic disorders