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Pharm & Ototoxicity > Quiz 1 (From Lect. 1) > Flashcards

Quiz 1 (From Lect. 1) Flashcards

1
Q

how do cells know what to do or how to behave?

A

cell signaling

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2
Q

what is cell signaling

A

process by which cells communicate with each other to coordinate various functions necessary for the body’s development, homeostasis, and response to external stimuli. This communication is essential for maintaining the organization and function of multicellular organisms

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3
Q

what is biochemistry

A

study of molecular basis of life

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4
Q

what are atoms

A

have an unequal number of protons and electrons resulting in no net charge
smallest units of ordinary matter that retains the chemical properties of that element

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5
Q

when are atoms the most stable

A

when outermost electron shell is full

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6
Q

what happens when the outermost electron shell is not full

A

chemically unstable

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7
Q

what is an uncharged atom

A

radical

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8
Q

what are ions

A

atoms or molecules that have gained or lost one or more electrons resulting in a net positive or negative charge

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9
Q

first inner ion ring holds

A

2 es

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10
Q

second inner ring holds

A

8 e

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11
Q

third ring holds

A

18 e

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12
Q

fourth ring holds

A

32 e

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13
Q

what makes an ion a positive charge

A

when atomic shell loses electrons there are more protons than electrons
one for each unbalanced proton

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14
Q

what is a cation and an examplr

A

positive charged ion (Na+

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15
Q

what makes an ion a negatve charge

A

when electrons are added to the shell there are more electrons than protons
one for each extra electron

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16
Q

what is an anion and an example

A

negative charged ion (Cl-

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17
Q

what are common ions in the body and cochlea

A

Na+, K+, Cl-

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18
Q

describe electrolytes

A

facilitate conductance of electrical current
electrostatic attraction between +ve & -ve ions brings the particles together and creates an ionic compound, such as sodium chloride – NACL (salt)

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19
Q

derived from an atom by either losing or gaining electrons resulting in a charged entity

A

ion

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20
Q

what is a molecule

A

groups of atoms (2 or more) chemically bonded together representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction
smallest unit of a pure substance that has all of the properties of that substance

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21
Q

what is equal to the atomic number (Z)

A

of protons in the nucleus of the atom

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22
Q

what is an ex of molecules

A

water
2 hydrogen & 1 oxygen & together they make water (molecule)

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23
Q

single units of elements with no charge (neutral)

A

atoms

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24
Q

charged atoms or molecules due to the loss or gain of electrons.

A

ions

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25
Q

are combinations of two or more atoms bonded together, which can be either neutral or charged (if they form ionic compounds)

A

molecules

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26
Q

atoms are the building blocks of matter, ions are charged versions of these building blocks, and molecules are combinations of atoms bonded together

A

true

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27
Q

basic unit of matter

A

atom

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28
Q

gain/loss of electrons

A

ions

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29
Q

chemical bonds bw atoms

A

molecules

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30
Q

ex of atoms

A

H
O

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31
Q

ex of ions

A

sodium ion (Na+
Chloride ion (Cl-)

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32
Q

ex of molecules

A

Water (H₂O), Carbon dioxide (CO₂), Ammonium ion (NH₄⁺)

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33
Q

what are free radicals

A

atoms, molecules, or ions that contain an unpaired electron in their outermost shell, making them highly reactive and unstable.

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34
Q

why can free radicals easily engage in chemical reactions with other moleules? what is the result?

A

because of the unpaired e
resulting in the formation of new free radicals and leading to a chain reaction.

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35
Q

in humans, free O2 radicals are released from many processes of cell chemistry
too many damage other molecules over time, producing some aging effects and some cancers

A

true

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36
Q

what is a compound and an ex

A

reproducible no matter how many times you do it & you can break it down
combination of </= 2 elements with a chemical union and combine in a reproducible way
able to be converted into simpler forms by chemical means
ex: H2O can be converted to hydrogen and oxygen through heat

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37
Q

all compounds ae molecules but not all molecules are compounds

A

true
compounds are always consistent of atoms of different elements
molecules can consist of atoms of the same or different elements

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38
Q

what is a mixture

A

consists of two or more different elements and/or compounds physically intermingled
able to be separated into its components by physical means
retains many of the properties of its components
just like a mixed drink, you can separate all of the components
sugar & water, tea & sugar are good examples

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39
Q

what is a non-uniform mixture

A

Consists of two or more substances without fixed proportions and without chemical bonding
Each substance keeps its original properties
heterogeneous mixture, is a type of mixture in which the components are not evenly distributed throughout the mixture

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40
Q

what is a chemical bond

A

attraction bw atoms that allow the formation of chemical substances containing 2 or more atoms

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41
Q

what are covalent bonds

A

Bonding b/w nonmetals
not involved in durg receptor interaction
form when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration.

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42
Q

Example: Carbon (C) and Oxygen (O)
C:H or C-H

A

covalent bond

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43
Q

holds together proteins, carbs, & lipids
strongest & most stable chemical bond

A

covalent bond

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44
Q

what is a hydrogen bond

A

between positive hydrogen atom and electronegative atom (oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur)
weakest
any molecule that has a hydrogen atom attached directly to oxygen or nitrogen is capable of this bonding

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45
Q

these molecules in hydrogen bonding have higher boiling points than similar sized molecules that do not have -O-H or an -N-H group

A

true

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46
Q

this bonding makes molecules sticker and more heat is needed to separate them

A

hydrogen bonding

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47
Q

Hydrogen bonds perform critical functions in the body, including:

A

Holding the two strands of the DNA double helix together
Holding polypeptides together
Helping enzymes bind to their substrate
Helping antibodies bind to their antigen
Helping transcription factors bind to each other
Helping transcription factors bind to DNA

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48
Q

what is ionic bonding

A

bond bw metal and nonmetal
atoms that have excess electrons (negatively charged atom) are attracted to atoms with deficiency of electrons (positively charged atom)
most effective force in attracting drug molecules to a receptor site

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49
Q

stronger than hydrogen bonds but weaker than covalent bonds

A

ionic bonds

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50
Q

ex of ionic bonds

A

Sodium (Na) (alkaline metal) and Chlorine (Cl) = Ionic Bond
Chlorine atom takes an electron from the sodium atom converting the atoms into ions (Na+) and (Cl-), which are now held together by their opposite electrical charge

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51
Q

what is a van der waals bond

A

when they get too close they repel; when they get further away they attract
these are attractive/repulsive residual forces that occur bw molecules or atomic groups that don’t arise from covalent bone, electrostatic interaction of ions, or ionic groups with one another or with a neutral molecule
most common bond bw atoms
weaker than covalent, ionic or hydrogen bonds

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52
Q

operate only when molecules pass very close ot each other

A

van der waals

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53
Q

provide a weak force for some drugs and their receptors

A

van der waals

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54
Q

The bigger the atom or molecule the smaller the Van der Waals’ force

A

false

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55
Q

What is an oxidation/reduction reaction

A

family of reactions that are concerned with the transfer of electrons
there is no oxidation reaction without a reduction reaction happening at the same time
loss of electrons = oxidation
gain of electrons = reduction
aka redox

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56
Q

you cannot have one without the other

A

redox reaction

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57
Q

describe the process of oxidation and reduction - REDOX

A

metal atoms - characterized by tendency to be oxidized
lose one or more electrons resulting in a positively charged ion = cation
these electrons are not destroyed but gained by the non-metal (that is reduced)
non-metal atoms - gain the electrons lost by the metal
forms a negatively charged ion = anion

58
Q

atoms that are metal will lose electrons (give them up) and when this happens it is + charge because it has more protons

A

become cations during oxidation period

59
Q

atoms of non metal will take them and reduced so they become anions (more electrons)

A

reduction

60
Q

some life forms maintain reducing environment within their cells

A

false
all life forms

61
Q

what is ros

A

reactive oxygen species
highly reactive molecules containing oxygen. They are natural byproducts of the normal metabolism of oxygen and have important roles in cell signaling and homeostasis.

62
Q

what is oxidative stress

A

condition characterized by an imbalance between the production of free radicals (reactive oxygen species, or ROS) and the body’s ability to neutralize them with antioxidants. This imbalance leads to damage of cells, proteins, and DNA, contributing to various diseases and aging processes

63
Q

includes free radicals and peroxides

A

ROS

64
Q

are two processes believed to go hand in hand (the two evil twins!

A

oxidative stress and inflammation

65
Q

oxidative stress and inflammation result in

A

The aging process
Neurodegeneration
Diseases such as
diabetes
some cancers
aterosclerosis
parkinsons
alzheimers

66
Q

ros benefits

A

use by immune system to attack and kill pathogens and it is used in cell signaling

67
Q

overproduction leads to cell damage

A

ros

68
Q

necrosis

A

passive accidental cell death w/ subsequent inflammation
severe oxidative stress can cause cell death

69
Q

apoptosis

A

controlled cell death; active programmed cell death that avoids eliciting inflammation
moderate oxidation can trigger this

70
Q

There are natural antioxidants that occur in the body as well as antioxidants obtained from food and vegetables

A

true

71
Q

naturally produced antioxidant found in plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria that protects cells from toxins such as free radicals

A

Glutathione

72
Q

Reduced glutathione (GSH) has

A

trong electron-donating character

73
Q

All cells in the body are capable of producing glutathione, but synthesis in the _____ is essential

A

liver

74
Q

As electrons are lost, the molecule becomes

A

oxidized

75
Q

important protector within the auditory-vestibular system

A

Glutathione

76
Q

New otoprotective drug therapies are designed to promote actions of

A

Glutathione

77
Q

inflammation is apart of complex biological immune response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli like

A

pathogens (bacteria, virus)
physical trauma
chemical trauma (acid spill, etc.)

78
Q

inflammatory response can stays in heightened response resulting in issues like cancers, reduced immunity etc.

A

true

79
Q

why is inflammation necessary

A

to allow body to destroy invading organisms & repair itself (wound healing)

80
Q

what is chronic inflammation

A

pathological condition characterized by continued active inflammation response and tissue destruction

81
Q

chronic inflammatory process induces

A

oxidative stress and reduces cellular antioxidant capacity

82
Q

free radicals can lead to

A

mutation and DNA damage

83
Q

Overproduced free radicals react with

A

cell membrane fatty acids and proteins impairing their function permanently

84
Q

risk factors of chronic inflammation

A

Hypoxia (COPD?), obesity, hyperglycemia, and smoking

85
Q

can be a predisposing factor for some cancers and accelerated aging

A

chronic inflammation

86
Q

chronic inflammation believed to play a serious role in a wide variety of age-related diseases including

A

diabetes, cardiovascular, and autoimmune disorders

87
Q

one of the triggers for autoimmune disorders

A

chronic inflammation & high ROS in the body

88
Q

what are the cardinal signs of inflamation

A

Redness
Vasodilation
Increased blood flow

Swelling
Edema, caused by accumulation of fluid outside blood vessels

Heat
Increased blood flow to the area
Fever is brought about by chemical mediators of inflammation and contributes to the rise in temperature at the injury site

Pain
Distortion of tissues caused by edema
Chemical mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins

Loss of function
Because of pain or severe swelling that prevents movement

89
Q

what are proteins

A

amino acids

90
Q

amino acids - how many and type, and how they are shaped is influenced by? how is it determined

A

genetic composition

91
Q

how each protein develops is influenced by

A

genetic composition

92
Q

to form a covalent bond what do you need

A
93
Q

to form an ionic bond what do you need

A
94
Q

to form a hydrogen bond what do you need

A
95
Q

what are enzymes

A

catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in cells
almost all enzymes are proteins

96
Q

molecules at beginning of process of enzyme reactions

A

substrates

97
Q

enzyme converts substrates into different molecules

A

products

98
Q

enzyme has to unite briefly with at least 1 of the reactant

A

true

99
Q

can an enzyme alter its shape to accommodate several substrates

A

yes

100
Q

what do a set of enzymes do

A

determine which metabolic pathways will happen n the cell

101
Q

examples of enzymes

A

ex: collagenase, lactase, acetylcholinesterase

102
Q

molecules decreasing enzyme activity
examples

A

inhibitors
many drugs and poisons

103
Q

molecules increasing enzyme activity

A

activators

104
Q

what can enzymes be affected by

A

temp
chemical environment (ph)
concentration of the substrate

105
Q

commercial use of enzynes

A

synthesis of antibiotics

Household products use enzymes to speed up biochemical reactions
Enzymes in biological laundry detergent break down protein or fat stains on clothes
Enzymes in meat tenderizers break down proteins making the meat easier to chew

106
Q

what are receptors

A

protein molecule embedded in cell surface or in cytoplams that allows for communication bw cell and world outside of cell
allows extracellular molecules (hormones, NT, toxins, drugs) to attach to it that results in a change in the cell function
extracellular molecules = ligands

107
Q

occurs by ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds & van der waals forces

A

receptor ligand binding

108
Q

ex of ligand block receptors that stop responses

A

calcium channel “blocker” drugs - act like plugs & used to treat hypertension

109
Q

list of proteins

A

NT
enzymes
receptors

110
Q

anything not a part of the clel; outside of the cell

A

ligand

111
Q

what are proteins

A

polypeptide sequences formed from the building blocks of many amino acids
held together by covalent bonds
overproduction of free radicals impairs their function

112
Q

what are NTs

A

chemical messenger that carries, boosts, and modulates signals between neurons and other cells in the body
most are released from the axon terminal after an AP has reached the synapse, crosses the synaptic gap to reach the receptor site of the other cell or neuron
reuptake - NT attaches to the receptor site and reabsorbed by the neuron

113
Q

play major role in everyday life and body functions
more than 100 have been identified
affected by disease or drugs that can cause adverse effects on the body

A

NT

114
Q

excitatory effects on the neuron; increases likelihood that neurons will fire an action potential

A

excitatory NT

115
Q

inhibitory effects on the neuron; decreases the likelihood neurons will fire an action potential

A

inhibitory NT

116
Q

ex of excitatory NT

A

ex: epinephrine & norepinephrine

117
Q

ex of inhibitory NT

A

ex: serotonin & GABA

118
Q

which NT is lacking in parkinsons

A

dopamine & acetylcholine?

119
Q

Some neurotransmitters, such as ____ & ______, can have both excitatory and inhibitory effects depending upon the type of receptors that are present

A

acetylcholine and dopamine

120
Q

fight or flight response

A

epinephrine - adrenaline

121
Q

which disease is seratonin involved in

A

depression

122
Q

voluntary movement of the skeletal muscles (via the sympathetic pathways)

A

acetylcholine NT

123
Q

wakefulness or arousal - via the sympathetic pathway

A

norepinephrine NT

124
Q

voluntary movement and motivation, “wanting”, pleasure, associated with addiction and love

A

dopamine NT

125
Q

memory, emotion, wakefulness, sleep and temperature regulation (association with depression?)

A

serotonin

126
Q

(5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) –

A

seratonin

127
Q

inhibition of motor neurons; major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system

A

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

128
Q

spinal reflexes and motor behavior

A

glycine

129
Q

excitatory stimulation

A

glutamate

130
Q

what are hormones

A

chemical substance (peptide or steroid) produced and released by one set of cells and conveyed by the bloodstream to another to affect physiological activity like like growth or metabolism
produced in one area and goes to another as chemical messengers

131
Q

powerful and only a small amount is needed to alter cell metabolism

A

hormones

132
Q

examples of hormones

A

thyroid hormone, cortisol, estrogen, and testosterone

133
Q

where are growth hormones produced

A

thyroid

134
Q

what hormone is used in audiology

A

corticosteroids

135
Q

What are neuromodulators

A

substance other than a NT that is released by a neuron and transmits information to other neurons that alters their activities
produce diffuse response and released throughout the CNS
play role in sensory transmission especially pain

136
Q

play role in sensory transmission especially pain

A

neuromodulators

137
Q

substance P modulates

A

pain

138
Q

dopamine and nicotine are involved in addiction (NT as well as neuromodulators)

A

true

139
Q

what is histamine

A

Organic nitrogenous compound involved in local immune responses - allergies

140
Q

A group of hormone-like lipids compounds made at the site of tissue damage or infection
They are involved in dealing with injury and illness

A

prostaglandins

141
Q

prostaglandins involved in dealing with injury and illness, controlling processes such as

A

Inflammation
Blood flow
Formation of blood clots
Induction of labor

Pharm & Ototoxicity (10 decks)

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