Quiz 1 Flashcards
Define Communication
the management of MESSAGES with the objective of CREATING MEANING
- message management occurs between at least 2 parties
- People share
1) Information
2) Meaning
3) Feelings
through the exchange of 1) Verbal and 2) Non-verbal Messages
Describe the relationship between culture and communication
Symbiotic
What is Culture
Culture includes: - values, beliefs - norms, customs - rules, codes - history - religion - language - ecology - technology that SOCIALLY DEFINE a GROUP OF PEOPLE, binds them to one another, and gives them a sense of COMMONALITY and kinship
- culture is LEARNED and TRANSMITTED from one generation to another
(it is not part of your DNA and must therefore be constantly passed on) - culture has 2 manifestations: 1) EXTERNAL (artifacts, roles, institutions) and 2) INTERNAL representations (values, attitudes, beliefs, cognitive/affective/sensory styles)
- Similar to bacteria in the sense that Culture requires careful CULTIVATION
What are the following concepts in cultural communication:
A) Intracultural Communication
B) Multicultural Communication
C) Cross-Cultural Communication
D) Intercultural Communication
A) Intracultural comm
= talk ONLY among yourselves
B) Multicultural
= society with several ethnic groups
= People live alongside one another, but each cultural group does not necessarily have engaging interactions with each other
C) Cross-Cultural Communication
= the COMPARISON of different cultures
= differences are understood and acknowledged
= in society, there is a “dominant” culture to which all other cultures are compared to it
D) Intercultural communication
= mutual EXCHANGE of ideas and cultural norms
= actual mixing
= deep understanding and respect for all cultures.
What are the 6 Key Characteristics/Properties of Communication
- *Symbolic
- there is no direct mind-to-mind contact; we communicate through verbal and non-verbal cues
- Symbols are ARBITRARY, abstract and ambiguous representations of objects and ideas
- there are no absolute meanings
- People interpret the meanings behind symbols => the meaning is in the people, not the words or symbols - Continuous (it’s a Process!)
- Communication is DYNAMIC and an ONGOING activity that CHANGES because of the interactions between parties
- communication never really ends, nor is there a specific beginning
- even a pause is considered communication
- therefore, PREVIOUS communication AFFECTS present communication because we READ INTO present communication using previous communication
- you cannot NOT communicate - Irreversible / Unrepeatable
- communication moves in ONE DIRECTION
- spoken words cannot be unspoken
- “disaster comes from you mouth” - *Transactional (interactive)
- Refers to the Transactional Model of Communication (sender, receiver, noise)
- the process of LISTENING and TALKING (sending and receiving) occurs SIMULTANEOUSLY
- you are BOTH the sender and receiver
- some messages may get “corrupted” due to NOISE (which can be physical, mental, linguistic or cultural noise)
- therefore, communication is an EXCHANGE. Most of the time, it happens with a purpose - *Systemic (Contextual)
- communication takes place within SYSTEMS
- these refer to different but interrelated parts that combine to form a unique whole
- e.g. context (time and place), history (previous contact)
- these systems constantly CHANGE (e.g. with generational differences) - Content versus Relationship
- Communication is both content and relationship
- Content = information conveyed
- Relationship = INTERPRETATION about the info conveyed (how do you stand with regard to the other person)
e.g. You paid $100 for THAT?
Cultural Communication as a Narrative (Fisher’s Narrative Paradigm)
All MEANINGFUL communication occurs via STORYTELLING (or a narrative)
> our culture and past experiences influence which stories we TELL and which stories we choose to LISTEN to
Narrative Rationality enables humans to determine WHICH STORIES to believe and which ones to disregard.
> Meaningful communication is NOT based on logic (stories can be logical, but we may still not believe in it)
Every story can be summarized by one “Master Plot”
e.g. Moby Dick = Man versus Whale. Whale wins.
Narrative Rationality:
- consists of…
1) Coherence (internal consistency) - does this story hang together? Are there any loop holes?
- Structure of the story
- Resemblance to other stories (e.g., no hidden surprises)
- Character Credibility (e.g., are there strong characterizations, what about the protagonist’s characteristics?)
2) Fidelity (Credibility or Reliability) - How closely does the story resonate with your own cultural values or what you think is right or wrong? How BELIEVABLE is the story? > related to CULTURE
- Facts / values to the story
- Relevance to story (are these values relevant to the story arc)
- Consequences to believing the story (e.g. affects the way you communicate)
- Consistency with your own experiences (e.g. culture)
- Transcendence - which characteristics from this story should others follow
What are the 5 characteristics of culture?
- Learnt
> children learn their culture through interaction, observation and imitation
> e.g. proverbs and stories, art/dance/music, mass media - Transmitted from Gen to Gen
> without transmission, a culture dies - Based on Symbols
> symbols include food, artifacts , language, national celebrations/songs
e.g. Singapore is known as “Lion City”
> Symbols are deeply felt and create a sense of identification within members of a group - Subject to Change
> change is due to INNOVATION/technology (e.g. discovery of new practices like the way we cook)
> cultural borrowing / DIFFUSION (adopting elements that are compatible with values and beliefs)
> Acculturation = massive changes whereby members are typically forced to take on new traits and give up less dominant traits (e.g. assimilation)
> how fast is change? VISIBLE aspects of culture CHANGE more easily compared to invisible/deep structures of culture
> generally culture stays stable. However, the more open the culture, the more susceptible it is to change - Integrated System
> Culture is a “way of life” or “blueprint”
> culture influences our beliefs and values, which shape ATTITUDES and then prescribes BEHAVIOR (norms, predictable behavior/social practices)
History and Culture?
> history is a summation of the unique, shared experiences that become part of a culture’s collective WISDOM
> history highlights CULTURE’s ORIGINS and carry important VALUES
> history GUIDES members into the future
> e.g. Malaysia and Singapore have different history
Singapore’s History
> Singapore was a part of the “Malay Archipelago” that was already composed of indigenous Malay and non-indigenous people
Singapore became one of the trading ports colonized by the British
1819 is seen as the start date of “modern” Singapore
the British created a “plural society” that emphasized ETHNICITY and REDUCED CONTACT between groups
1822: creation of Raffles Town Plan (aka Jackson Plan) where ethnic groups lived in separate, self reliant communities
> all throughout history there was separations in where groups lived, occupations, education, political parties
> In post-colonial era, the new Malayan government aimed to create a multi-cultural nation, ASSIMILATING groups with a common ingroup identity via a common language and shared education system
implementation failed due to resistance from non-Malays
What is multiculturalism?
The view that cultures, races, and ethnicities (particularly those of minority groups) DESERVE SPECIAL acknowledgement of their DIFFERENCES within a DOMINANT political culture
> multiculturalism beliefs accepts and recognizes diversity
> there is both VISIBLE/outward and INVISIBLE differences
(e.g. Visible: Vietnamese food, Invisible: what you think like)
> most countries are accepting of outward differences, however deep down inside, you must SUBSCRIBE to the ETHOS of the dominant culture
What is Acculturation?
What are the degrees of Acculturation?
Acculturation refers to the PROCESS of cultural and psychological CHANGE that follows CONTACT between cultural groups and their individual members
> members may be forced to take on new traits and give up less dominant traits (e.g. assimilation)
Acculturation takes place in both individuals and groups
The dilemma is defining who’s culture to keep and how much to change/compromise
Degrees of Acculturation:
1. Assimilation (“melting pot”)
> give up home culture and take on features of host culture
> “regardless of where you’re from, you are now Canadian”
> Differences “divide” people
- Pluralism (“salad bowl”)
> contribute and add to the cultural tapestry with your own culture
> Differences “enrich” each other
Acculturation strategies
Society must decide two things:
- Cultural Maintenance
> “to what extent are cultural
identity and characteristics considered to be important, and their maintenance strived for”
> to what extent are cultural identity and characteristics important?
> to what extend should these cultural characteristics be MAINTAINED?
> how much support/allowance should be given to people in holding onto practicing their own culture? - Contact and Participation
> to what extent should people become involved in OTHER CULTURAL GROUPS, or remain primarily AMONG THEIR OWN GROUPS
> how much contact do people have with the greater society (national civic life?)
Berry’s Acculturation Model (POV of Minority or Immigrant GROUP)
4 quadrants, two axis:
- Y axis: Relationship sought among groups (contact)
- X axis: Maintenance of heritage, culture, and society
- High Relationship, High Maintenance = Integration
- High Relationship, Low Maintenance = Assimilation
- Low Relationship, High Maintenance = Separation
- Low Relationship, Low Maintenance = Marginalization
Berry’s Acculturation Model (from the POV of Majority or Host SOCIETY)
4 quadrants, 2 axis:
- Y axis: Participation with other groups in daily life of larger national society (Contact)
- X axis: Maintaining heritage culture and identity to sustain cultural communities
(think back to the circles for society’s POV)
- High Participation, High Maintenance = Multi-culturalism
- High Participation, Low Maintenance = Melting Pot
- Low Participation, High Maintenance = Segregation
- Low Participation, Low Maintenance = Exclusion
What are the 3 underlying principles of Intercultural Relations
(The quality of intercultural relations, such as mutual respect and acceptance towards increased cultural pluralism, is underscored by 3 fundamental principles…)
- Multiculturalism Hypothesis
> the degree to which a society is ACCEPTING of differences is dependent on the degree of CONFIDENCE in one’s socio-economic SECURITY
> e.g. more secure, more welcoming
> less secure, less welcoming
> therefore, societies need to have stable economic growth - Integration Hypothesis
>Societies with POLICIES that support BOTH intercultural contact and cultural maintenance in public and private spheres enjoy more successful social outcomes
> minority groups benefit from COMBINING their respective ethnic identities with a new national identity = integration! - Contact Hypothesis
> Greater inter-group CONTACT will lead to more FAVORABLE out group attitude
> all groups are treated fairly and respectfully
Multiculturalism as a Government Policy
The Singaporean government wanted to maintain a multi-cultural status
> main motto was “equal treatment for all, based on pragmatic, market-driven, secular ideologies”
secular means not related to religion
How did Singapore deal with socio-economic inequality and cultural differences?
> equality is not necessarily equity (i.e. may not be a fair way to distribute resources)
> minorities benefit from affirmative action
How do multicultural policies impact public and private lives?
> in public life, you will ADHERE to Singaporean values and policies
> in private life, the cultural part is up to you and your community
Therefore, Singapore follows “Institutional Multiculturalism”
> multiculturalism was an instrument of the state for nation-building
> now an integral part of Singapore’s national culture
e.g. “Mother Tongue” or Bilingual policy
> Singaporeans are encouraged to be proficient in both the English language, and in their respective ethnic mother tongues
Multiculturalism as tool for Nation-building (some concerns)
> In Singapore, only state-identified ethnic identities were officially accepted
therefore, differences that CONFORMED to NEAT CATEGORIES were respected (CMIO)
could multi-culturalism be too exclusionary, especially for mixed heritage groups/hybrid cultures, as well as regional or linguistic diversity within CMIO groups
e.g. have to give up their dialects and cultural practices
What is Singapore’s Liberal Immigration Policy?
Was there immigration backlash?
> Immigrants are needed to fill in the gaps within Singapore’s labour force, especially jobs that Singaporeans shun
> Singapore needs people to do “3D” (dirty, difficult, and dangerous” jobs, while also bringing in people who have DEMOGRAPHIC and CULTURAL COMPATIBILITY
Yes, there was immigration backlash:
> Immigrants were seen as ECONOMIC THREATS (jobs, resources like housing)
> Also seen as SYMBOLIC THREATS (behaving in ways that are not aligned with Singaporean Identity, could be encroaching on social norms and values)
> Multiculturalism as disciplinary
Differences between Malaysia and Singapore in the management of cultural diversity
Malaysia:
> “divide and rule” policies
> “zero-sum” belief where resources are distributed in a way that FAVOURS dominant Malay group at the expense of non-dominant groups
Singapore:
> equal treatment of all races
> multicultural hypothesis is at work in SG (socio-economic security is necessary to forge inter-racial confidence)
> differences among groups are PRESERVED to maintain inter-group harmony
> however, now immigration threatens social cohesion
What are cultural patterns?
What is the importance of cultural patterns?
Are there variations in these patterns?
How do cultural patterns develop?
Cultural patterns are SHARED MENTAL PROGRAMS that are STABLE overtime and govern behavior
> include shared beliefs (“what we hold to be true”), values (“what we hold dear, good versus bad, right or wrong”), and norms (“shared expectations of appropriate behavior, outward manifestations of beliefs and values”) that lead to SIMILAR BEHAVIOR across SIMILAR SITUATIONS
> e.g. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, Bond’s Confucian cultural patterns
> cultural patterns allow us to PREDICT to some extent how people will BEHAVE and ADAPT our communication accordingly
*variations stem from individual personality orientations, and possessing multiple cultural identities
How do cultural patterns develop?
> humans are faced with COMMON problems that need solutions
> Different cultures have access to DIFFERENT RESOURCES (e.g. ecology), which results in DIFFERENT SOLUTIONS
> Over time, PREFERRED SOLUTIONS will be continually used, which then SHAPES a culture’s basic assumptions about beliefs, values, norms, and social practices
> These preferred solutions become CULTURAL PATTERNS and are the “way that things have been done traditionally”
What is worldview?
Our “beliefs” about how the WORLD works
> beliefs about God, humanity, nature, life, death, sickness
This in turn affects how we LIVE OUR LIVES
Questions answered by our worldview:
> What is the purpose of life?
> What happens when we die?
> How did the world begin?
There are 3 forms of worldview
- Secular
- Spiritual
- Religious
Forms of worldview
- Secular
> view that humans can live and exist WITHOUT GOD or spiritual guidance
> scientific point of view
> therefore, there is NO second world, all the good you should do is in this world - Spiritual
> belief that EACH PERSON can discover INNER PEACE
> meditation, readings - Religious
> Belief in the existence of a GREATER REALITY than the human that is the “creator” of cultures (e.g. God)
> ORGANIZED views and behaviors
> members adhere to FIXED set of beliefs
*there does NOT need to be overlap between religion and spirituality
> you can follow a religion, but not consider yourself spiritual
How does religion impact your behavior?
Religion impacts your BELIEFS, VALUES, and NORMS
> values are quite explicitly communicated (e.g. in Bible)
Therefore, religion impacts your ATTITUDES (e.g. Can you change the world), and SOCIAL BEHAVIORS (e.g. what is your role in life)
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck
A model WITHOUT empirical research
Lists 5 Orientations (related to self and world) alongside various beliefs and behaviors
SR HAS
- Human Nature
> How do you see yourself and human beings?
> Basically Evil, Neutral, Mixture of Good and Evil, Basically Good
> For each of the above, are humans “mutable” or “immutable”
> can most people be trusted? Or are they basically pretty good at heart?
*contained in religious doctrines and fables
*affects motivation - Relationship to Nature
> Subjugated by Nature, Harmony with Nature, Masters of Nature
> Is life largely determined by EXTERNAL forces (e.g. God, fate, genetics)? Or can humans conquer and control nature?
*urban versus city dwellers - Sense of Time
> Past-oriented (traditional-bound), Present-oriented (situational), Future-Oriented (goal-oriented)
> Should humans learn from history to emulate glorious ages of the past? Or should humans focus on the present moment, or future? - Activity
> Being (expressive/emotional), Growing/Being-in-becoming (inner development), Doing (action-oriented)
> Is it enough to just “be”? Or are you on this earth for “inner development”? Or must you “work hard” to see rewards?
*affects how you see work - Social Relationships
> Lineality (authoritarian), Collateriality (Group-oriented/collective decisions), Individualistic (Equal rights)
> Are there natural leaders and followers? Do you get advice from close friends and families on how to solve problems? Or are you focused on individually controlling your own destiny?
Where does Singapore lie on Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s Cultural Dimensions?
Sense of Time: Future-oriented
> Singaporeans like to PLAN ahead and have many CONTINGENCIES in place
e.g. Covid-19 outbreak containment and measures
> learn from the past to prepare for the future
> Thriftiness / saving for the future
(e.g. CPF system (3 accounts) - saving for the future)
> studying hard for the future
Social Relationships: Collaterality (group-oriented, collective decisions) => leaning towards lineality
> Singaporeans value FAMILIES (will often consult with family first before major decisions, normal for young adults to live with parents as it is something that is treasured rather than looked down upon)
> strong sense of filial piety
> HDB Ethnic Quota implemented to discourage the formation of racial enclaves in Singapore
Human Nature: Mixed
Relationship with Nature: in harmony
Activity: Doing
Hofstede Culture Dimensions
Unlike Kluckhohn and Strodbeck, Hofstede’s model is empirically studied on IBM employees
- Individualism-Collectivism
> “the degree to which a culture relies on and has allegiance to the self or the group”
> Do group or individual interests take precedence?
> Low indiv: harmony and consensus should always be maintained, relationships prevail over tasks, identity based on social network
> High Indiv: self-expression, tasks prevail over relationship, identity based on individual - Power Distance
> the degree to which the culture BELIEVES that institutional and organizational POWER should be distributed UNEQUALLY, and the DECISIONS of the power holders should be CHALLENGED or ACCEPTED
> DISTRIBUTION of power
> how accepting is society of INEQUALITY?
> does the culture favour hierarchical power structures, or does it favour a more equal distribution of power
> Both subordinates and dominant groups subscribe to the SAME beliefs
> Low PDI: equality should be strived for, followers expected to question/challenge authority figures
> High PDI: inequality is expected, there is a social order, followers are expected to be TOLD what to do, no questioning of authorities - Uncertainty Avoidance
> “the extent to which the culture feels
threatened by ambiguous, uncertain situations and tries to avoid them by establishing more structure”
> tolerance for ambiguity, degree of need for structure?
> Low UAI: uncertainty is normal, risk taking, social deviance is okay, change is welcomed
> High UAI: uncertainty is a threat, low risk appetite (more focused on calculated risks), suppress social deviance, use of extensive rules and rituals, conservatism and extremism are practiced (resist change) - Masculinity-Femininity
> “the degree to which a culture values such behaviors as assertiveness and the acquisition of wealth or caring for others and the quality of others”
> does society display masculine (accomplishments, assertiveness, value material possessions, wealth, competitiveness) or feminine characteristics (caring, nurturing, welfare of others, quality of life)?
> imposition of gender roles?
> Scale is Low mas to high mas
*new one in Hofstede’s revised schema after incorporating Confucian teachings
- Long-term versus Short-term Orientation
> past and present orientation (maintaining traditions, fulfilling social obligations, national pride)
> future orientation (working, thrift, pragmatic, humility, perseverence)
Four key principles of Confucian teachings
- Social Order and Stability are based upon UNEQUAL relationships between people
> leader/follower
> Father/son
> Husband/wife - The FAMILY is the prototype for ALL social relationships
- Golden Rule: Proper social behavior consists of not treating others as you would not like to be treated yourself
- People should be skilled, educated, hard-working, thrifty, modest, patient, and perserving
Bond’s Confucian Cultural Patterns
Which one of the Hofstede’s cultural dimensions does not correlate to Bond’s? Why?
- Integration
> related to individualism/collectivism dimension
> refers to a sense of SOCIAL STABILITY
> High Integration: tolerant, non-competitive, interpersonal harmony, group solidarity - Human Heartedness
> related to masculinity/feminity dimension
> sense of gentleness and compassion
> High human heartedness: patience, courtesy, kindness - Moral Discipline
> related to power distance
> sense of moderation and restraint in daily activities
> High moral discipline: follow the middle-of-the-road path, regard personal desires as negative - Confucian Work Dynamism (person’s orientation to life and work)
> One extreme: value thriftness, persistence, status differences within relationships, sense of shame => Long-term Orientation toward life
> Other end: value following and maintaining traditions, maintain “face” of the self and others, gift giving => Short-term Orientation
*no correlation with Hofstede’s uncertainty avoidance dimension
> Uncertainty avoidance refers to people’s search for TRUTH, which is primarily important in Western cultures, not so much in Asian cultures
