Final Flashcards
What is language?
Language is ____ and ____
Is Language static?
> Language is “Arbitrary” and “Conventional”
Why is language arbitrary?
> Language is “Symbolic”
> Language is a system of communication that uses SYMBOLS
What are the symbols?
> words in different languages are arbitrary assignments to their meanings
Why is language conventional?
> language requires a SHARED agreement among people to follow certain rules or Grammar
> “Grammar” = conventional system of rules
Language is NOT static - it evolves
What function does language play in every day life?
(Socio-cultural functions = Social and Cultural Functions of Language)
Communicative Exchange (what are the others)?
- Communicative exchange
- Language and Identity
- Language and Unity
“Communicative Exchange”
> Languages is used to communicate with one another
> Basic tool for us to conduct human affairs via “conversation”
> “Expression of affect” - we use language to outwardly express how we are feeling/emotions
e.g. Singlish uses Leh, Lah, Lor
> “Thinking” - our thoughts can be expressed in words or pictures - language enables us to think
> “Control of reality” - languages helps us engage with reality and the world around us
e.g. praying, shouting “Go” at a sports game
Link between Language and Culture
> Symbiosis of language and culture (mutually beneficial relationship)
> Language is a CARRIER of culture
> Without language, human culture could not have been able to DEVELOP (we need language to record knowledge and our history, share our culture with other group members)
(we would still be primates!)
> IMPORTANT aspects of a culture are highlighted in vocabulary and common phrases
(e.g. “time is money”)
> Language also enables people to DISTINGUISH EXPERIENCES DIFFERENTLY according to the categories provided by their respective language
(a different language results in a different view of the world)
Language:
Accent versus Dialect
Vocabulary or “argot” used
Language:
What are the different variations of a language?
- Accent
- Dialect
- Argot / Jargon
- Slang
- Lingo
- “Accents”
> variations in the way people PRONOUNCE words of the SAME language
> arise due to geographical or historical differences
> e.g. Southern Accent, NY accent can all be English - “Dialect”
> A particular variation of a language characterized by differences in vocab, grammar, and pronounciation
> specific to regions or social groups
> sort of understand - “mutual intelligibility”
> e.g. Cantonese, Mandarin, Hokkien
> refer to the continuum of dialects - “Argot”
> SPECIALIZED or private vocabulary for an IN-GROUP
> specialised vocabulary IN A LINGO
> Jargon = Professional vocab
> obscures meaning of communication between in-group members, which creates a sense of identity
> e.g. Medical jargon, gay jargon, gang jargon - “Slang”
> COLLOQUIAL/INFORMAL/TRENDING phrases tied to time or place
> often impermanent (they change)
> not understood by all groups
> e.g. Millennial slang, geographical slang
(text-speak, net-speak, Gen Z-speak)
> e.g. fly aeroplane = not show up to a meeting - “Lingo”
> non-standard language use that is not understood by all (including grammar and syntax etc)
> spoken VERY CASUALLY
> comprised of slang that IN-GROUP members would understand
> Opposite of standard language
Language:
Which English is the proper one?
What type of English prevails in Singapore?
> Historically British English was thought to be standard English
However, even Britain has variations in English spoken. Different geographical regions have different ACCENTS
In Singapore:
> Singapore Standard English - close to British English (similar grammar and spelling)
> Singlish or Colloquial Singapore English (CSE)
> Singlish is considered a “different kind of English” - it has its own grammar, slang/non-mainstream words
Language:
Continuum of Dialects
- Vernacular
- Pidgin
- Creole
- Patois
Progression in dialect from intelligible/understandable to not being able to understand the dialect
- “Vernacular”
> Umbrella term for language used in EVERYDAY LIFE
> as opposed to formal language - “Pidgin”
> Lingua Franca or “language of commerce”
> Lowest or simplest idea behind language evolution
> Pidgin is a grammatically SIMPLIFIED form a language
> Have limited vocabulary and grammar (broken language, short hands, non-grammatical)
> A way of functionally communicating by people who do not speak each other’s language
> Pidgin is not the speaker’s native language
> E.g. Adopting broken Malay words to bargain in the market (Malay-derived pidgins) - “Creole”
> A language formed from a mixture of different languages that used to be a pidgin
> There is some sort of standardized use and grammar
> Viewed as a corruption of a base language (“corrupted”)
> E.g. Singlish
> *Broken English is NOT Singlish (there is a difference) - “Patois”
> Predominant dialect in a region (still different than Standard Language)
> Has an element of POWER and DEROGATORY too
> e.g. shift your language to a patois to show others that their language is inferior
Then, a dialect with power becomes a language
Language:
Singlish
> Semi-tonal language (adding lah, leh lor changes the MEANING of the sentence)
> used in informal settings and with members of you in-group
> a mixture of languages, such as Malay, English, and Hokkien
> Surprisingly, you do not need to know Malay, Hokkien, or Mandarin to speak Singlish
> Main benefit is that Singlish is an EFFICIENT language because it uses short hands
> Singlish, like language, is dynamic and evolves as society changes
> Singlish is entering into the business world too (ads in Singlish, robots can understand Singlish)
> Singlish is Singapore’s most POLITICAL language
> Government (especially LKY) wanted Singaporeans to speak Standard English because it can be understood by many people everywhere as opposed to Singlish (seen as a handicap since people cannot easily code switch between SSE and Singlish)
> “Speak Good English Campaign” in 2000s recognized that Singlish is a cultural marker and promoted efforts to speak Standard English
> Gradually there has been increased acceptance of Singlish. The position remains that SSE is vital for Singaporeans to earn a living, and Singaporeans should tell the difference between Singlish and standard English
> Singlish is the “natural lingua franca” of the grunts (military men)
Lingua Franca = a language that is adopted as a COMMON language between speakers whose native languages are different. = Bridge language
What function does language play in every day life?
(Socio-cultural functions = Social and Cultural Functions of Language)
Language and Identity
- National Identity
- Ethnic Identity
- Social Identity
(EXPRESSION OF WHO YOU ARE)
> Language is a major MARKER for groups to DISTINGUISH themselves from other groups, thereby maintaining GROUP IDENTITY
(language is a way for us to CONSTRUCT our group identity)
Social Identity:
> within groups, language establishes STATUS and HIERARCHY
(e.g. who speaks Standard English versus those who speak Singlish => CLASS MARKER)
> Language could also not be unifying since language is a major marker of SOCIAL IDENTITY
> Singlish has traditionally been associated with lower class (you wouldn’t use Singlish to communicate with you superiors)
> people who can code switch between SSE and Singlish are regarded as higher status
Ethnic and National Identity:
> Language is a RALLYING point of ETHNIC and NATIONALIST sentiment because language is a powerful, and VISIBLE sign of CULTURE
E.g. Many countries like France have “No English” campaigns to maintain own language
E.g. Singlish is an UNIFIER (brings a country together) and celebrates Singapore’s cultural identity (it is a cultural marker!)
Language:
When does a dialect, creole etc. become a full fledged language?
> A dialect with sufficient social and economic power becomes a language
e.g. Cantonese
> Many European languages (French, Italian) are very similar to one another and stem from LATIN
Could be considered CORRUPTED Latin
When will Singlish be a language of its own?
Language:
(Socio-cultural functions = Social and Cultural Functions of Language)
Language and Unity (social change)
- Keeping history
- Enculturation and socialization
- Social Change
(FUNCTION OF KEEPING PEOPLE TOGETHER)
> Language is a construct or knowledge base that you can PASS on to future generations so they can PERPETUATE your culture
> you socialize future generations on the beliefs and norms are
> Language of a culture directs people’s attention to the most important things in particular cultures
(language SHAPES our social realities and cultures)
> the WAY you talk is a signal of SOCIAL CHANGE
> Language comes with cultural baggage (e.g. ‘nurse’ is gendered)
> Changes in language, such as language borrowing, signal wider shifts in societal thinking
(e.g. What you envision as the gender of a ‘surgeon’ versus ‘nurse’ may change over time)
Link between Language and Culture
What is the role of language in Different Cultural Contexts?
Hall’s Theory of High and Low Context
Language and gender?
> you cannot assume communicating the same language will mean your message is communicated clearly > must consider high versus low context culture
> recall that members of low context cultures focus on the MESSAGE and the EXPLICIT WORDS itself.
may miss actual meanings behind words of someone from a high context culture
> High context cultures focus on everything else, like relationships, history, gestures, status, whether you are in or out group etc.
You have an ARGOT used to communicate with your in-group members, such as SHORT HANDS that do not necessitate overt, complete responses
also subtle meanings behind different words based on the way you deliver it
e.g. in SG, “can!” shows enthusiasm versus “Ok can” which shows marginal reluctance, but a low context culture would see it as agreeance
> shows how language and vocab can be perceived differently in different cultures
Genders:
> women are more high context (communicated via implied messages such as through behaviour)
> men need to be explained everything
Language:
How does code switching demonstrate when, where, and to whom certain languages or dialects are used (in Singapore)?
Casual Setting between colleagues?
Formal setting like communicating with your boss?
Communicating with your family?
- Casual Setting with friends
> Singlish - consider your friends in-group members, some intimacy
> e.g. friends, family, buying groceries - Formal Setting
> Standard English is spoken (want to match the superior status of your boss)
> related to how English is the COMMON language of communication among Singaporeans and to foreigners (serves an economic purpose)
> Seen as a status symbol in SG (signals that you are educated, more powerful)
> Since English is not one’s first language, it can create DISTANCE too
> e.g. school, at work, meeting with strangers or clients - Informal Setting with Family
> Mother tongue language
> Signals intimacy and comfort
Characteristics of NVC (behaviours)
Some characteristics of NVC are “UNIVERSAL” across cultures
> We ALL possess the same body parts, face similar contexts, have similar information to convey, have similar motives and functions etc.
> Universal “Facial Expressions” for happiness, sadness, anger etc.
> these universal elements tend to be what is most BASIC or HONEST (hence instinctive and expressed at BIRTH)
Other characteristics of NVC is “UNIQUE” to a particular culture
> different display rules
> e.g. Singapore is the most emotionless society in the world, but would be more accurate to say Singapore is the most expressionless / doesn’t show emotions on the face –> likely to due face culture found in Asian societies)
> different meanings attributed to behaviours
Functions of NVC
(see slide)
> give examples
- Repeat verbal messages
> e.g. waving while saying “Hi”
(send the same message) - Accent/reinforce verbal messages
> used when verbal messages are not sufficient to communicate the message clearly or strongly
> gestures can reinforce the meaning or intensity of the message
> e.g. saying “stop” and using hands to create distance
> e.g. stomping while shouting - Complement or modify a verbal message
> NVC adds to the meaning.
> It could send a slightly different meaning than the verbal message
> e.g. pat on the should saying “that’s alright” versus “excuse me” => complement
> e.g. hugging while saying “I love you” - Substitute or replace verbal messages
> No verbal messages are sent
> instead, you communicate strictly non verbally
> e.g. “shh” gesture, other symbols - Contradict verbal message
> e.g. saying “I’m okay” while also crying or having a sad expression
> body language cannot lie! It sends a message too - Regulate and manage conversations
> e.g. pauses in conversation to speak or emphasize points, walking away when convo is over
> e.g. nodding to signal your partner to continue talking
Channels of NVC
How does these channels relate to culture?
- Kinesics
- Proxemics
- Haptics
- Artifacts
- Physical appearance
- Paralanguage
- Chronemics
Different cultures have their own CULTURALLY AGREED UPON SYMBOLS and NVC
(e.g. Not all cultures share the same beliefs about personal space and meanings of body language)
“Culturally prescribed codes” that are internalised by members
What is NVC?
> Communicating without words and primarily via attitudes, personalities, emotions, relationships with others, voice, face/body
> NVC is not taught formally, but rather, it is LEARNED through observation and imitation
> Messages sent via NVC tend to be ambiguous and complicated
Unique NVC in SG?
> waiting for instructions from people in authority before doing anything
> joining queues without knowing or caring what the queue is for
> wear winter clothes indoors and summer clothes outdoors
> Emotionless or expressionist due to face culture (need to maintain dignity and avoid shame) - “Paiseh piece” where no one ends up taking the last piece of food
Channels of NVC:
Kinesics
> what is it?
> cultural differences?
> SG?
Study of BODY LANGUAGE
- Posture
- Facial Expressions
- Eye Contact
- Gestures
Cultures: Body language has different MEANINGS and NORMS depending on the culture. Some body language is more APPROPRIATE than others.
> Your posture can indicate a lot (e.g. Tired? Sorry? Guilty?)
> different cultures use different gestures when speaking, and they have different meanings
E.g. Asian cultures don’t tend to use hand gestures as much
E.g. Nod could mean “yes” or “No” (in Thailand)
E.g. “peace sign” has many other meanings (2, chop, wait or pause)
> Different perceptions about length of eye contact
E.g. in Japan, too much eye contact is considered rude
In hierarchical Asian cultures like Singapore, it’s expected for subordinates to look down to bosses or seniors
Look into the eyes of people of your own status
Channels of NVC:
Proxemics
> What is it
> Cultural differences?
> SG?
Use of SPACE (physical and psychological space)
> How you claim the environment around you is tied to culture (e.g. collectivist or individualistic)
Individualistic cultures tend to desire more distance/space and value PRIVACY
Collectivist cultures are more interdependent and require less space
- Territoriality - space CLAIMED by individuals, whether permanently or temporarily
> How do you protect your private space in communal spaces?
> e.g. Singapore “chope” for marking a seat - Personal space - invisible bubble surrounding individuals
> What is the appropriate distance for INTIMATE distance, PERSONAL/conversation distance, SOCIAL distance (small groups), and PUBLIC distance (large groups)?
> E.g. In India, personal space is nonexistent (stand closely in queues, live in close quarters)
> E.g. In Singapore, some personal space in queues for MRT lines
> Psychological space comes from silence (e.g. loud talkers are disturbing on MRTs)
* now people are social distancing
Channels of NVC:
Haptics > What is it > Cultural differences? > SG? > Other things dictating amount and type of touch?
Use of TOUCH (amount and type of touch that is appropriate)
> relates to High versus Low Contact cultures, Contact versus Noncontact cultures
> Reasons for touching include:
- Expressing emotions
- Exerting control
- Performing ritualistic behaviours
> Culturally accepted boundaries for touch varies with levels of EMOTIONAL RESTRAINT and RIGID STATUS distinctions
> SG is a fairly LOW CONTACT culture
> Amount and type of touch is also affected by:
- Age (do not touch older person)
- Sex (e.g. Chinese men don’t hold hands but Indian men do)
- Relationship with people
- Location, situation, the environment (private or public)
- Duration of touch and relative pressure
Channels of NVC:
Artefacts > What is it > Cultural differences? > Cultural Appropriation versus Cultural Exchange? > SG?
Material side of culture
> what you wear and what you possess
(clothing, homes, cars, technology, jewellery)
> What do these possessions and attire signal?
> markers of IDENTITY, including CLASS identity, NATIONAL identity, subcultures, ETHNIC identity etc.
> “Cultural Appropriation” is the unacknowledged or inappropriate ADOPTION of customs/practices etc. of one culture by members of another culture (typically from a more DOMINANT group)
e.g. wearing Qipao to prom, Katy Perry wearing kimono in her MV
> Cultural appropriation is NOT the same as “cultural exchange”, since cultural appropriation could be used without permission in inappropriate, harmful or unwelcome ways, could reinforce negative stereotypes, perpetuates oppressive narratives/stereotypes
e.g. wearing clothing in a way it’s not meant to be worn
there lacks a “want” to be a part of that community when adopting the customs/attires etc.
especially if it’s adopted by the dominant group that treats the minority group in a discriminatory way = double standard
> You can however have cultural exchange and use cultural symbols as long as its not inappropriate, unwelcome, and negative (e.g. Racial Harmony Day)
Clothing:
> Occupational dress versus leisure clothing
> in SG, people judge others based on their attire
> Nowadays, there is less differentiation between occupational dress and leisure clothing
> National Costume
Occupational uniforms for police, nurses, firemen
School Uniform
Traditional Costumes (could reinforce stereotypes)
e.g. NETS E-Pay “brownfacing” ad (impersonating ethnicities with darker skin, like Indian)
Channels of NVC:
Physical Appearance
> What is it
> Cultural differences?
Attractiveness and Body Preference
> How is beauty defined in your culture?
Physical appearance is used to communicate aspects of one’s IDENTITY (e.g. gender, sex, age, status)
> What are the physical appearances for a GIRL versus BOY in one’s culture?
(e.g. length of hair)
> what is considered age appropriate?
Channels of NVC:
Paralanguage
> What is it
> Cultural differences?
> SG?
“How” something is said, not the message (“outside words”)
> can affect the meaning of words
> Different cultures have different paralanguage
Includes:
> Voice (pitch, volume, rhythm, accent)
> Sounds (laugh, cry, gasp, moan, sighing)
E.g. in SG, “nah! Neh! Nor! Doo”
> Silence (stuttering, vocal fillers, long pauses or silences)
E.g. in SG, loud talkers are annoying (overhearing conversations on the MRT is disturbing) –> want psychological space and privacy
Channels of NVC:
Chronemics
> What is it
> Cultural differences?
> SG?
Communication through the USE OF TIME
> e.g. how we perceive the passing of time, how we react to time
> Also refers to time orientation (importance placed on the passage of time) - Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck
> different cultures view time differently
Edward Hall:
- M-time (“monochronic time” or people)
> idea of don’t waste time, don’t keep people waiting
> value time a lot
> do one thing at a time
> are very committed to the job, plans
> values promptness
> accustomed to ST relationships
> E.g. In Singapore, you are expected to have your MRT card ready to scan before you arrive at the scanner to expedite the process
> keeping people waiting is anti-social (e.g. pick what you want to order beforehand) - P-time (“Polychronic time” or people)
> Relaxed view of time
> multi-task
> change plans often and easily
> base promptness depending on relationship
> tendency to build life long relationships
> e.g. interestingly, outside of work and in social spheres, Singaporeans are very relaxed and polychronic
therefore, SG is moderate in chronemic
Culture’s contribution to Business Communication
> Throughout a person’s life, they are SOCIALIZED and eventually inculcated into professional and organizational cultures
> Start with NATIONAL culture, which differs depending on which subgroup you subscribe to (ethnic, gender, generation, region, religion)
> Through EDUCATION, students are channeled into certain professions and get exposure to PROFESSIONAL CULTURES (academic, business, engineering, governmental, legal, medical culture etc.)
Each professional culture has its own EXPECTATIONS
> then once you get a JOB, you join a specific company and are part of an ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE (corporate culture)
Organisational (Corporate) Culture?
> climate of the WORKPLACE, which is largely defined by the actions of an organization’s LEADERSHIP team/FOUNDER
> As with all cultures, organisational cultures CAN CHANGE over time, as the tone at the top changes
Work-related values:
- Individualism v Collectivism
What about SG on the spectrum?
> work in teams or work individually
> individual workers have CLEARLY DEFINED RESPONSIBILITIES and TASK OWNERSHIP
Success and failure is on the individual
> Collectivist cultures: job is assigned to a work unit or task force. There are NO CLEAR BOUNDARIES of responsibilities
SG:
> Collectivist
> however, SG is becoming increasingly individualistic
> depends on the company
Work-related values:
- Work and Material Gain
What about SG on the spectrum?
> related to Hofstede’s masculinity v femininity
also related to indulgent v restraint
and LT orientation
> Do workers value HARD WORK (e.g. see hard work as a virtue, able to benefit in the LT, live to work, work is an end in itself)
Or is work a BURDEN (work to live, work is a means to an end)
SG:
> Workaholic culture
Debate:
> working too hard - stress-related illnesses, not enough time to enjoy benefits of hard work
> Or, people who love to work live longer = work is essential to achieve a meaningful life = work life balance
