QUIZ 1 Flashcards
how do we generate reliable knowledge?
by using the scientific method
observation–> ordering and classifying of facts–> generalizations –> hypothesis making –> testing –> verification –> knowledge
steps to designing research
problem–> question of interest –> specific predictions –> methods and research design –> data collection –> data analysis –> interpretation
research design example
migration and changes on agricultural patterns in Oaxaca, mexico
problem in Oaxaca
Is the arrival of remittances from migrants
changing the agricultural strategies of Zapotec
communities?
Oaxaca specific qs
what kind of changes are being implemented?
Oaxaca context
- place: mountains of Oaxaca
- Socioeconomic context: demographic
and economic collapse - Ecological issues: landscape ecology
oaxaca problem
Socioeconomic context results on
changes pressures over environment
Oaxaca variables
Relevant fields of inquire: agriculture
strategies, population, cash, commodities,
land cover
Oaxaca methods of data collection
1) Aerial picture analysis for land cover change
2) Demographic descriptive statistics and life stories
3) Tax records and mapping
4) Household income analysis
Question of Interest
oaxaca research design
Unit of analysis: individual/ household/
extended family
Timing of the process (1960s onwards), of the
research (seasonality?)
Scale: small community + multilocal
Sample: number of households
Question of Interest
Oaxaca results
- There is a clear process of forest
transition
People left
- Remittances are a fundamental part
of the local household economies
- Cultivar portfolio has changed (less
types of crops, less area devoted to
cultivation)
what is interdisciplinary research ?
Crosses traditional boundaries
between fields
research questions define…
context, scale, timing and history (process)
-variables, sample strategy, methods
classic research question problems
- Concept definition
- Required spatial scale of analysis
- Temporality (of event and of
research) - Goal definition
independent variable
initial variable of
which we know its changes
dependent variable
results on another
variable depending on the changes of the independent
variable
constants
value that doe snot change
either a reality or an assumption
process (diachronic studies)
the idea that things change across time
- time is an accumulation of points
process: consequences of synchronic studies
limits analysis of flows ( trends; predictions; patterns)
- idea of variability cannot be detached from the concept of process
process: questions and time
- temporality (diachronic/ synchronic)
- longitudinal vs cross-sectional
- repetitive relevance (ex: annual, seasonal)
- temporal scale (short to long term)
questions and space = scale of question
- Macro (relative to the question and
context) - Micro (relative to the question and context)
- Networked research (links between relevant
nodes) - Multiscalar research (links between different
scale levels)
breaking down research
variables (dependent/
independent)
Constants
Context
Process in time (history/ change)
Process in space
Evidence (data)
Sampling
what does time and space refer to in research Q?
- Demography across time
- Demography across space and
time - Redefining scale
what is replicability ?
The notion that same methods, same
locale, should generate the same results
how do you validate an interpretation ?
Validity would, then, depend on the
accumulation of such identical results
(statistical approach to the validation)
what is evidence?
data we produce
data we process
data we interpret
types of data
- quantitative / qualitative
- ‘objective’/ subjective
- artifacts (archaeological),
texts (interviews, novels, direct
observation), measurements..
question while sampling
- To who?
- To how many? –idea of
sampling- - How?
- What are the consequences of
each choice?
what is sampling theory?
The selection of some
part of the whole in
such a way that we
can use the part to
inform us about the
whole
what is probability sampling?
each element of population has equal chance of selection
define population
group of people, items or units under investigation
define census
information obtained by collecting
information about each member of a “population”
define sample
Obtained by collecting information only
about some members of a “population”
why do we use samples?
- Cost & time, or a census downright
impossible - Sampling provides adequate
information - Some tests are destructive (car
safety collision tests)
components of sampling
- Design (randomness, hierarchical,
snowball) - Size (representativity)
- Location (spatiality of the sampling)
- Composition (social variables):
gender, occupation, age, kin, status,
… - Awareness
how do you identify a ‘representative’ sample?
Sampling Theory (random)
- Each sample point must be independent
- Each sample point must have an equal
and independent probability of being
picked
- Adequate number of sample points
when to use random sampling
Natural Sciences prefer ‘Random’ or
‘Probability’ Sampling (otherwise results
may be biased, i.e., not representative of
population
why use non-random sampling?
Sometimes only biased samples are
available. Social sciences are conducive
to non-probability sampling: snowball
sampling, purposive, convenience
what are consequences of sampling?
- From the privileged sole informant,
to talking to everybody (from
minimal sample versus universe) - Reflecting about representativity
- Randomness versus purpose
types of random sampling
simple
systematic
stratified
cluster
simple random sample (equal chance)
Obtain a complete sampling frame
- Give each case a unique number
starting with one
- Decide on the required sample size
- Select that many numbers from a
table of random numbers
- Select the cases which correspond to
the randomly chosen numbers
systematic sampling (arranged in some order, first random, followed by k th)
Sample fraction
- divide the population size by the
desired sample size
- Select from the sampling frame
according to the sample fraction
- e.g sample faction = 1/5 means that
we select one person for every five in
the population
- Must decide where to start (start is
random)
stratified sampling
Premise - if a sample is to be
representative then proportions for various
groups in the sample should be the same
as in the population
Stratifying variable
characteristic on which we want to
ensure correct representation in the
sample
Order sampling frame into groups
Use simple random or systematic sampling
to select appropriate proportion of people
from each strata
cluster sampling
Involves drawing several different samples
by dividing a large geographic area into
smaller units
e.g., divide Montreal into boroughs
Select simple random samples from the
boroughs
start with large areas then progressively
sample smaller areas within the larger
types of non random sampling
snow ball
convenience
snow ball sampling
Identify possible informants by
asking our current informants
about suitable new subjects
Identification of networks
Ideal for specialized
communities
what kinds of of qs needs snowball sampling?
Questions on minorities or invisible
communities
- Questions on dispersed groups of
individuals (diaspora communities,
networks of specialized individuals,…)
- Questions on secretive of mistrustful
groups)
what is convenience sampling?
Glorified “do whatever you can”
what are control cases?
Chose two similar samples
- Proceed to the experiment with
one of them, leave the other as
an example of the initial
situation
why use control cases?
Asses change by, simultaneously
assessing lack of change
- understand the
mechanisms of change by
assessing two different processes
on identical locales
ethics: relevance
-Understanding the values of the
research site
- Understanding the
consequences of your research
- Conducting proper research
- Legal process
responsibilities in research
- To studied people and animals
(to subjects and context) - To scholarship and science
- To the public
research ethics
Research often confronts different
stakeholders interests
* Ethics as a complex field of
competing interests
* The researcher does not remain
outside of the game (becomes a
player or turned into one via
expectations)
how is data generated? (primary extraction)
- Observing social or biological behavior
- Interviewing
- Measuring frequencies
- Collecting samples
secondary treatment of data : processing
Statistics
- Discursive analysis
- Modeling
- Geographic Information Systems
different types of research methods
archival research or recollection of social data on the field
field data collection is gathered by either
surveys/ interviews or observation
composition of surveys and interviews
By structure
- structured, semistructured, unstructured
By theme
▪ Life stories, genealogies
▪ Free listing, triads pile sorting
▪ Diet breadth, income analysis
field observation
time allocation and participant observation (method and framework)
different fields of inquiry
- Demography
- Domestic Economy
- Ethnohistory
- Ethnobiology
- Health
what does interviewing consist of ?
Talking to people
- Opinion versus facts (interpretation)
- Narratives or points
- Practicalities: time, setting, themes
- Memory
types of questions
- Closed versus Open-ended Questions
- Closed questions includeYes/No responses, Likert
Scale questions, and Categorical Choices.
advantages of open-ended questions
When not all categories
are known
- Can answer in detail with
clarification
- Used if too many
categories
- Used if issue complex,
exploratory, preliminary
- Allows expressiveness
disadvantages of open-ended questions?
Worthless, irrelevant
responses possible
- Statistical Analysis
difficult
- Requires time to
respond
- Looks longer to
respondent
advantages of closed questions
Standardized
- Easier to respond to
- Easier to code
- Clearer about
meaning of question
- Better with sensitive
topics (multiple
choice)
disadvantages of closed questions
- Easy for respondent
to “just guess” - Respondent may not
find the right
category
wording to avoid in questions
avoid double-barrelled (and/or) and leading questions
order of interview questions
general –> specific –> open-ended and sensitive questions
historical data collections via…
written history (documents) = lit rev.
oral history
- interviews
-life stories
-genealogies
why is archival research important?
contextualization!! and historical data or state
how do you replicate archival research ?
citation of sources
contrasting sources
justification with data and source
what is a life story?
collection of recollections of personal historical narratives associated to individual past experiences
what is narrative analysis?
Local definitions of the key concepts (avoid
assumptions )
* Certain level of interpretation
* Narrative style and structure, presence of
metaphors
* Repetition across subjects