Quarter 2 (Chapter 6-10) Flashcards
Vasco de Gama
Portuguese sailor who was the first European to sail to India (did so from 1497-1499), brought Portugal to Asia for trading in the Indian Ocean Basin (other European countries followed)
Indian Ocean Commercial Network
Middle East trade network that supplied Europe with goods from the East, led by Muslims; Portuguese wanted to by pass Venice and Muslim traders from the commercial network and “continue crusades” (political and religious motive to participate in Indian Ocean trade)
Portuguese maritime empire
Sea empire around the Indian Ocean with bases in East Africa and India, extended from South Africa to far East; Portuguese became dominant sea power (had advanced ships and cannons)
armed trade
trade of weapons/military products
Goal of Portuguese maritime empire
Control spice trade to become wealthy and powerful (never achieved bc Portugal never controlled more than 1/2 of spice trade due to Ottoman Empire route to Mediterranean)
trading post empire
Empire made to control commerce, not territory or populations (ex. Portuguese maritime empire, used military to forcibly establish bases and became involved in ‘carrying trade’ [sold shipping instead of goods])
How and when did the Portuguese maritime empire end?
- 1600s,
- Portugal declined in Asia bc they were overextended
- resisted by Asian states (Japan, Burma, Mughal India, Persia, Sultanate of Oman)
- resisted by European countries bc of competition
Spanish maritime empire
Extended from colonies in North and South America to the Philippines, the first European country to challenge Portugal
Philippines
- Spanish took over around the century after 1565
- were diverse chiefdoms w/ no sole authority and and a small/weak military (easy Spanish colonization)
- Became only major outpost of Christianity in Asia
Manila
New capital of colonial Philippines, flourishing/culturally diverse by 1600 (Spanish + Filipino migrants, Japanese, Chinese traders/artisans/sailors)
How were Chinese in the Philippines treated?
They resisted Spanish conversion to Christianity, so they were discriminated by Spain and revolted = massacres.
joint-stock companies
owned by merchant investors who raised money and controlled risks (British and Dutch East Indian companies, that forcefully took over Portuguese)
British East India Company
- got charter from govt. to make colony in India
- trading post empire, established trading settlements in India in 1600s
- got bases with permission of Mughal leaders
- Indian cotton textiles
- Mughal decline in power = British increase in power
Dutch East India Company
- got charter from govt. to make colony in Indonesia
- Violently took control of spice-producing islands (controlled shipping and production)
- Clove, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace
- sold spices 14-17x more than price in Indonesia
British maritime empire
stretched from North America to India
Dutch maritime empire
Stretched from South America to Indonesia islands
textiles (Indian cotton)
main product/focus in British India colonies
shogun
Japanese supreme military commander, hailed from Tokugawa clam, politically unified Japan in early 1600s
How did Japan view Europe during the shoguns?
Japan viewed Europe as a threat, closed off European commerce in 1650-1850 (suppressed Christianity and forbade European traders)
Viji Vora
- Indian that headed a large and wealthy family firm (Europeans took loans from him)
- represented the continuity of Asian merchants have dominance in 1600s
silver drain
flow of silver from Americas to China in late 1500s-1600s, first direct link between Americas + Asia
How did the value of silver increase?
China made a single tax to pay in silver in 1570s (foreigners could buy Chinese silk and porcelain)
piece of eight
standard Spanish silver coin, used by merchants in North America, Europe, India, Russia, West Africa as a medium of exchange
Potosí
- City, high in Andes at world’s biggest silver mine (now Bolivia), 160k population, largest city in Americas, silver fueled economy
- silver made wealthy Europeans rich, killed Native American miners, gave women more opportunities
Tokugawa shoguns
Military leader in Japan, used silver profit to defeat rival fuedal lords and unify the country (protected forests, allied with merchant class for market-based economy) = positive impact
How did silver impact Spain?
- Made Spanish monarchy rich so they could pursue politics/military in Europe/Americas
- More wealth meant inflation and a rigid economy (prioritized Christianity conversion over economy)
- Silver value dropped and Spain lost dominance in early 1600s (inflation)
fur trade
competitive fur industry, French/British colonies in Americas sent furs to Europe, used Native American labor (and Russian labor in Russia)
How did the value of fur increase?
Little Ice Age increased demand, by 1500 the European increase in agriculture and population decreased the number of fur bearing animals
mourning wars
caused by extreme population decline because of diseases, where Natives captured people to integrate into their own diminished societies
Environmental impact of fur trade
Beavers nearly extinct by early 1800s, loss of wetland habitats, deer population down by 1760s in British colonies
Impact of fur trade on Native Americans
- diseases, extreme war bc of competition between tribes (Natives also fought in Britain/France war) = population decline
- became dependent on European trade goods, which replaced their own traditional tools, weapons (gun instead of bow and arrow), clothing
- men became dominant in society because they lost former job of making decor, food, clothes, etc. from animal skins (traded instead)
“soft gold”
early modern era nickname for animal furs bc of how valuable and high in demand they were
How was the Russian fur trade unique from the American fur trade?
- no competing countries that wanted Siberia territory (Britain had France)
- fur tax/tribute from every able-bodied Siberian man 18-50 y/o
- large scale presence of Russian hunters and trappers
*Russia were able to completely dominate Siberia
How did fur trade impact Native Siberians?
disease, dependent on Russian goods, settlers disrupted Native lands, fur animals died
*same as Native Americans
transatlantic slave system
1500-1866, ~12.5 million Africans shipped across Atlantic, deathly journey
Compare transatlantic slave systems to slave systems before it
Before: Not all positions were degrading (could be military/political in Islamic world), worked in houses/farms/shops (more domestic, not plantations)
*Islamic world- wanted females 2:1
Transatlantic: plantation labor central to economy, slavery inherited with no freedom, stark/widespread racism
*wanted males 2:1
African diaspora
globally spreading African people
chattel slavery
slaves viewed and treated as property, not laborers
“slav”
base of the word “slave” in European languages
middle passage
part of journey across Atlantic for slaves, death rate of 14%
Origins of Atlantic slavery
Europe discovered sugar from Arabs during Crusades -> made sugar plantations in Mediterranean and West Africa islands -> got slavery as source of labor
How did Africa become slaves in Americas?
- Slavic people (1st Atlantic slaves) not available bc Ottomans took Constantinople
- Native Americans died from dieases
- religious justification to enslave non-believers from the Pope
- low status Europeans were Christian, servants were expensive
*process of elimination
maroon societies
- groups of free former slaves in remote areas like South America and the Caribbean
- escaped bc rebellions were instantly crushed by Whites (except Haitian rev.)
What was the transatlantic slave system like from Africa’s pov?
- EU waited on coast, African controlled from capture to sale
- slaves taken from interior Africa and sold multiple times, branded (went more inland as demand for slaves increased in 1700-1850 [high point bc American plantations booming])
- Africans received EU metal goods, guns, gunpowder, tobacco, alcohol, beads
What African social group became enslaved?
- marginal groups (war prisoners, criminals, debtors, ppl in difficult times)
- didn’t sell their “own” people, outsiders sold = no “African” identity
Palmares
biggest maroon society, in Brazil, 10,000+ people, most African but had Native Americans, mestizos, renegade whites too
cowrie shell
major currency in slave trade, West African legend tells them of growing on corpses of slaves (symbol of corruption of selling people)
signares
cross culture marriages between African women and Europeans or traders (women helped with commercial networks and domestic life)
What was the global impact of transatlantic slave trade?
- Integrated Africa into the interacting world
- competition between African kingdoms caused lack of unity to grow into bigger power
How did the transatlantic slave trade affect the African economy?
Ppl who got wealthy from it didn’t invest in society, and the European imports prevented African technology breakthroughs so overall the economy lost wealth
Queen Nzinga
1626-1663, ruled Matamba and guided state against rivalries and Portuguese imperialism
How did transatlantic slave trade affect African women?
- more men than women shipped to Americas = higher labor demands for women
- men could marry multiple women, female slaves in Africa increased
Asante
kingdom in West Africa (now Ghana), powerful in slave trade
Benin
kingdom in present-day Nigeria, not overly involved in slave trade while selling diverse exports and gaining EU guns/goods in return (slavery banned 1516-1700s but had to resume bc pepper and cotton exports were down)
Dahomey
neighbor kingdom of Benin, got really involved in slave trade under royal control (govt. depended on it for revenue)
What did Benin and Dahomey show in relation to slave trade?
rulers taking advantage of slave trade for their own interests
economic globalization
the connection and dependence between global economies, started early in early modern era
Protestant Reformation
- began in 1517 and challenged the authority of Roman Catholic Church
- claimed salvation could be found thru god alone, not Roman Catholic church
Martin Luther
- 1483-1546, started Protestant Reformation by publishing Ninety-Five Theses (nailed to Wittenberg church and publicly invited debate abt abuses in Roman Catholic Church)
- questioned pope luxury, corruption, immorality, church selling indulgences (pope and clergy authority)
How did diff. social classes feel abt the Protestant Reformation?
Kings + Princes - liked bc it justified their authority over the church (wanted church’s land and taxes)
Middle-class - felt legitimized with religion bc going to church was an aristocratic privilege
Common people - against everything and thought the whole church/clergy was corrupt
How did women’s lives change bc of Protestant Reformation?
They could read the Bible but couldn’t use literacy anywhere else (stayed the same)
Thirty Years’ War
1618-1648, Catholics vs. Protestant in most of Europe (height of religious conflict)
Peace of Westphalia
1648, ended Thirty Years’ War by agreeing each EU state had its own religious authority
*ENDED RELIGIOUS UNITY
Council of Trent
- 1545-1563, Catholics reestablished same beliefs (opposite of Protestantism)
- corrected corruption by educating priests and supervising them w/ bishops but still punished ppl against church
Counter/Catholic Reformation
caused by Protestant breakaway, made changes to improve and emphasize Catholic church
How did religion drive and justify EU exploration and colonization?
- EU settlers brought religion w/ them to spread it
- most successful Christianity conversion in Spanish America + Philippines bc of high # of EUs and no literate religion to compete with
How did Native Americans react to Spanish conversion?
They generally agreed and were baptized and accepted as Christian (bc they had been conquered and imposed with so many other religions before)
Taki Onqoy
- “dancing sickness”, religious revivalist movement in 1560s in central Peru
- traveling dancers possessed by local spirits/huacas said that allying w/ Andean deities would overcome Christian God and give EUs the same diseases Native ppl got from them
- caused bc Spanish, in frustration over Natives not converting, enacted violence against Native religion/spirits
huacas
Andean/Mesoamerican gods of their Native religion, have lasting impact along w/ Christianity
Virgin of Guadalupe
combined Mesoamerican and Spanish religion, represented Mexican Christianity
Effect of Spanish missionary efforts in Andes and Mexico?
New forms of blended culture resulted in Andean Christianity and Mexican Christianity, combining native religion with Christian/Spanish influence
Jesuits in China
- European missionaries in China to spread Christianity during 1500s-1700s
- during Ming and Qing dynasties, China was prosperous and didn’t need Christianity so Jesuits blended in (learned Chinese, confucian texts, etc.)
- aimed to convert Chinese elite, gave them secular European knowledge (science, tech, geography, mapmaking), in Chinese court for a bit
- no mass conversion
Emperor Kangxi
emperor of China, banned Europeans spreading Christianity (Jesuits) in 1715 bc the Pope got mad at Chinese Christians still respecting their ancestors and Confucius (insult to Chinese culture/authority)
Islamization
- the spread of Islam and Islamic culture through surfs (holy men), Islamic scholars, traders
- connected ppl to Islamic world (education, literacy, Quran, etc.) w/o forced conversion
How did Muslims practice Islam in Java?
- Practiced spirit worship w/ tolerant Islam, women in royal court, buyers/sellers in local markets
- not orthodox
- religious syncretism
What were orthodox Muslims’ response to religious syncretism?
- upset of idoltary practice
- Thought it was diluting authentic Islam and was the reason why the Ottoman empire was becoming weaker
Wahhabi Islam
- Islamic movement led by al-Wahhab in 1700s, more authentic/orthodox Islam that became an expansive state in central Arabia by 1800s bc it was backed by local ruler Muhammad Ibn Saud
- Ended in early 1800s by Egyptian army, but its religious impact of Islamic culture continued
How did Saud enfore the Wahhabi Islam movement?
- tombs destroyed, “idols” eliminated, logic books destroyed, banned tobacco, banned hashish (drug), instruments/music forbidden, taxes that religious teaching didn’t allow were eliminated
- restrictions on women within patriarchal Islamic framework (right to consent to marriage, control dowry, divorce, commerce, not fully covered, etc.)
neo-Confucianism
Confucianism mixed with Daiost and Buddhist elements, spread in China (but no dramatic cultural change)
Wang Yangming
- 1472-1529, Chinese thinker during Ming dynasty that said anyone could have a virtuous life (not only educated Confucian gentlemen/elite)
- new thinking supported by Chinese Buddhists, who encouraged monk rituals at home instead of withdrawing from world
*similar to Protestantism
kaozheng
- Chinese intellectual elite movement, emphasized analysis/precision/evidence over traditional Confucian philosophy
- scientific approach to knowledge applied to studying the past
- led to work in agriculture, medicine, pharmacy, botany, etc.
The Dream of the Red Chamber
- Cao Xuequin mid-1700s novel, big with many characters who were mostly women
- most famous fiction novel for lower-class Chinese society
- represented lower-class Chinese movement led by plays. paintings, short stories, novels, etc.
What did Akbar do in the Mughal Empire to blend religious cultures?
- made a cult combining Hinduism, Islam, and Zoroastrianism
- His court liked Renaissance Christian art and hung murals in palaces, harmem, and gardens
Ocean of Life
- commissioned by Akbar’s court
- book by prominent Sufi of illiustrated yoga poses, some in a Christ-like way
- brought yoga, a Hindu tradition, into Islam Sufi practice
bhakti
- type of Hinduism that aimed on forming union with at least 1 deity thru song/prayer/poetry/dance/ritual
- accessible bc of direct experience with divine that ignored caste distinction and was followed by a lot of women
- bridged Hindus and Muslims bc they were all just looking for god
Mirabai
1498-1547, one of most loved Bhakti poets, high caste women from North India that ignored class distinctions and worshiped an old shoemaker as her guru, wanted union w/ Krishna
Sikhism
- Punjab, founded by Guru Nanakji (1459-1539), blended Islam and Hinduism
- teaching of 10 gurus ignored caste distinctions/untouchability, equality between men and women
Scientific Revolution
- mid 1500s-early 1700s
- intellectual/cultural transformation in Europe, seen as radically departing from old ways of thinking that centered around the Roman Catholic Church
- led to Enlightenment
- science became global by 1900s
- new thinking changed ancient social hierarchy/political systems, playing role in modern era revolutions
Why did the Scientific Revolution happen in Europe?
- Europe was fragmented, not united by a common belief (unlike Islam in Islamic World or Confucianism in China)
- universities in West Europe were self-governing, so scholars could study freely w/o church or state influence
Nicolaus Copernicus
- Polish mathematician and philosopher, published book in 1453 that said the sun was at the center of the universe and the Earth and other planets revolved around it
- challenged the prior belief of earth being the center of the universe because people were the center of god’s attention
Galileo
Italian that made a new telescope in 1609 and made observations against ancient beliefs
Sir Isaac Newton
-1642-1727, Englishman that made modern laws about motion and mechanics
- challenged ancient beliefs bc his work said the Earth/heavens had the same motion laws as an apple or cannonball
How did beliefs about the human body change during the Scientific Revolution?
- Dissecting corpses and animals led to the beliefs that the heart wasn’t the center of the body’s heat/passions, just a complex muscle
- contributed to widespread belief that the universe functioned bc of science, not a religious force
Margaret Cavendish
1623-1673, joined conversations with natural philosophers, wrote 6 science docs, only Englishwoman to attend Royal Society in London (scientific learning), allowed bc she married Duke of Newcastle
*exception bc women were mostly excluded from scientific learning/revolution
Did early scientists reject Christianity?
No, they accommodated religion even though they were opposed by the Catholic Church
reason
rational, human, skeptical way of thinking used in the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment
European Enlightenment
- European thinkers used power of knowledge to transform society
- used human reason developed during the Scientific Revolution to apply to society, politics, etc. (not universe)
John Locke
1632-1704, English Enlightenment philosopher that made principles to make a constitutional govt. (contract between ruled and ruler, not divine)
Social contract
People agree to form society and govt. thru compromises (made by John Locke)
role of the individual
consent of government to uphold responsibilities in society
natural rights
rights that are fundamental to humans, not granted from govt. (Locke’s were life, liberty and property)
Voltaire
1694-1778, French writer that wrote book “Treatise on Toleration”, “enlightened” person
deism
deists believed in abstract/remote identity, like a clockmaker (not personal like God), developed and followed during the Enlightenment
pantheism
Pantheists believed that God = nature, developed and followed during the Enlightenment
How did the Enlightenment affect women’s rights?
They didn’t change, but the mindset was created that led to people to start fighting for women’s nature/role/education, created debate for women’s rights
*wealthy Paris women owned salons, but men in them weren’t feminists
What was the main idea of the European Enlightenment?
human progress that wasn’t fixed by tradition and could be improved with human action/reason
Marquis de Condorcet
1743-1794, wanted to end all prejudices against women and believed in equality of the sexes
Mary Wollstonecraft
English writer that wrote about women’s rights and education in the 1700s
Rosseau
- Argued that women were below men and shouldn’t have right to education
- Argued children should immerse themselves in nature instead of relying on books and education to learn (over reliance on human reason)
What forms of “enlightened” religion developed in early modern centuries?
Quakers, Unitarians, “social gospel” in 1800s
*religion adapted, not challenged
How was science received around the world?
Selectively, althought it was the most coveted thing from Europe
China- EU techniques to predict eclipses, calendars, mapmaking, math, not medicine until 1800s
Japan- closed off from all of EU except Dutch, small group of scholars learned anatomy/autopsy
Ottoman Empire- only interested in practical achievements (map and calendar making, not European philosophy)
*EU theory science rejected in Islamic World, astronomy observatory in Constantinople closed by religious scholars (thought God was causing plague bc he was mad @ ppl for discovering his secrets)
Charles Darwin
1809-1882, biologist that argued the “survival of the fittest” made new species and old species extinct and natural selection
*threatened Christianity bc God wasn’t making them
Karl Marx
- 1818-1883, made new view of human history and saw himself as a scientist
- said conflicting social classes drove history, tried to make laws explaining events in a rational way
- made socialism and thought it was inevitable
Socialism
society equally sharing resources (community controlled) to bridge gap between rich and poor, society w/o class or conflict
Sigmund Freud
- 1856-1939, Viennese doctor who applied science to operation of human mind and emotion (doubled Enlightenment thinking of human rationality)
- said humans had sexual and aggressive impulses at their core and were only held in check by social conscience from civilization
relativity
physics theory made in 1900s, explains that physics laws are same for everyone and how gravity works as a changing invisible force
*questioned Newton
quantum theory
explains how tiny things (like atoms and particles) behave and jump between energy states/levels
*questioned Newton
How did the Scientific Revolution affect modern science?
It layed the groundwork and scientific culture that made scientists in the 1800s/1900s able to make discoveries
popular sovereignty
notion that authority to govern was from the people (not God or established tradition), core of Atlantic Revolutions
social contract
relationship between ruler and the ruled, John Locke argued it should only last if it served the people well
liberalism
individualism, equal opportunity, political and economic, key in Enlightenment and American Revolution
American Revolution
independence from oppressive rule of Britain, 1775-1787
*first Atlantic Revolution
Declaration of Independence
- 1776, launched American Revolution
- 1781 American military victory against the British
- 1787 federal constitution
= United States of America
Causes of American Revolution
- Britain’s sudden attempt to get more control/money from colonies bc they were in debt from war w/ France
- 1760s: imposed taxes and tariffs on colonies w/o their consent (they didn’t have a seat in Parliament)
- colonists angry and motivated by Enlightenment ideas to revolt
democracy
system of govt where elected representatives govern state
How did gaining independence affect the colonies (turned into USA)?
It accelerated the established democracies (no big social change)
- established elite kept authority
- modest men joined state legislatures (nothing for women or poc)
*became most democratic country by implementing Declaration of Independence, not revolution itself
What was special about the US Constitution?
One of 1st efforts to put political ideas of Enlightenment into practice
French Revolution
1789-1815 conflict from every level of society, social upheaval
Causes of French Revolution?
- French govt. helped Americans in American Revolution -> almost bankrupt, wanted to change tax system
- Enlightenment ideas
*every level of society was unhappy
What were the 3 estates in French Revolution?
Clergy - 1% pop
Nobility - 1% pop
Commoners - 98%
Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen
- made by French National Assembly (3rd Estate commoners) in 1789
- said men are born free w/ equal rights
- led to 1791 French Constitution
How did each year of French society feel about France during the French Revolution?
nobility - against monarchy and resisted new taxes
educated middle class - offended that aristocrats had privileges they didn’t have
ordinary urban class - struggled bc their income declined, hit hard by high bread price and unemployment in late 1780s
country peasants - free from serfdom but still bound to estate (dues, taxes, church obligations, worked w/o pay on roads)
What happened after France’s first attempt to make a constitutional monarchy?
- more uprisings, violence
- power went to National Assembly ended legal privileges and feudalism
- 1793: King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette executed -> more violence
Robespierre
- led Terror of 1793-1794 (killed >10k people w/ guillotine) w/ his Committee of Public Safety
- guillotined shortly after
Olympe de Gouges
French playwright and journalist, changed language of Declaration of Rights to include women being equal to men
How did the French Revolution change women’s rights?
- It didn’t but it lead to female equity being questioned bc women played a large part in French Revolution
- women labelled “Third Estate of the Third Estate” and made women’s club (banned by insecure men in 1793)
Impact of French Revolution?
immediate - new street names, royal monuments destroyed, no titles
political - politics in public sphere, French ppl became involved
social - sense of nationalism developed among ordinary men and women
cultural - Catholic Church replaced as where to register births/marriages.deaths, revolution festivals replaced church holidays
Napoleon Bonaparte
- r. 1799-1815, spread French/French Revolution influence via military conquest (unlike US, only their IDEA of constitution/revolution spread)
- made military dictatorship by keeping moderate revolution elements but taking away total freedom (restored Catholic Church and suppressed total democracy)
- end of his reign (1815) marked end of French Revolution era
Haiti
- French Caribbean colony (Saint Domingue), renamed Haiti
- richest colony in world that relied on slave labor on sugar and coffee plantations
How did levels of society in Haiti react to French Revolution?
grans blancs (rich whites) - wanted more self govt. and fewer economic limits on trade
petits blancs (poor whites) - wanted equality for all white people
slaves - wanted personal freedom, began revolution when French supposedly ended slavery in 1791 (got power)
Toussaint Loverture
- former slave in Haiti that led slaves in the Haitian Revolution
- led slaves to overcome internal resistance, defeated Napoleon’s attempt to re-establish French control
Haitian Revolution
- 1791-1804, first completely successful slave revolt in world history, 2nd independent republic in Americas, 1st non-EU state from Western colonialism
Effects of Haitian Revolution
- slaves became free citizens
- free from French colonial rule
- 1804 Haiti Declaration of Independence (referred to citizens as ‘black’, disallowed citizenship for some whites)
- plantation economy destroyed, became small-scale farm economy
- extreme poverty bc of destruction and unstable politicians
“independence debt”
1825, French forced Haiti into debt that lasted over a century and prevented Haiti from economic growth
How did the end of slavery in Haiti affect the world?
Became an example for later slave revolts in 1800s
Africans - Haiti source of pride
Whites - Haiti source of horror
*led to expansion of slavery in Cuba bc Haiti sugar production declined and Napoleon’s defeat in Haiti caused the Louisiana Purchase (increased # of slave states)
Latin American Revolutions
1808-1825, Spanish and Portuguese colonies in mainland Latin America (last Atlantic rev. and inspired by ones before it)
Creoles
- Spanish native-born elites in colonies in Latin America
- against Spanish monarchy
Causes of Latin American Revolutions
- Spain imposed more taxes and tariffs over colonies
- Enlightenment ideas
- govt. divided by class
- 1808: Napoleon invaded Spain and Portugal, led to Spanish King Ferdinand VII and Portuguese royal family exiled in Brazil
*Latin American revolution was GIVEN to them by France, they were forced to take action after royal fam were exiled
Hidalgo-Morelos Rebellion
led by 2 priests, Miguel Hidalgo and José Morelos, socially radical
*reminded whites of ‘danger’ of giving poc power
Tupac Amaru
led native American rebellion in Peru, early 1780s
*reminded whites of ‘danger’ of giving poc power
What was the role of creoles in Latin American Revolution?
- They led the movement and rallyed poc together thru nativism (everyone born in Americas, creoles, Natives, mixed-race, free blacks = Americanos) had a common enemy in the Spanish and Portuguese
- unified poc w/ promises of freedom/end of legal restrictions/social advancing
*in the long run, barely any promises were kept bc slaves and Natives barely benefited
Did women benefit from the Latin American revolution?
No, even though every level of women in society played a role
wealthy - money, safe space for revolution meetings
Mexican women dressed as men to fight
Working/peasant - cooks/supply carriers
Simón Bolívar
regional military leader (creole sponsor of revolution), wrote Bolívar’s “Letter from Jamaica”
San Martín
Argentina general, gave national recognition to a lot of women (modest education improvement for women after revolution)
*exception for women
Effect of Latin American Revolution
- Latin American countries never able to unite into United States of Latin America bc they were far away, geography obstacles, and had developed regional identities from being colonies
- reversed North and South America success/influence (North successful, South not)
What were reasons why people stopped supporting slavery around 1780-1890?
- Enlightenment thinkers against slavery, American and French Rev.s equality principles
- Quakers + Protestants thought slavery was crime against God
- belief that slavery wasn’t needed for economic progress (England and New England both based on free labor), + industrial tech./capitalism
Great Jamaica Revolt
- 1831-1832, ~60,000 slaves attacked 100s of plantations - convinced the British public against slavery (slaves weren’t content)
- Britain abolished slavery in 1833
abolitionist movement
- Pressured global govt.s to stop slave trade and slavery, prominent in Britain and USA
- used pamphlets, Parliament petitions, lawsuits, boycott, public meetings
- led to Britain making selling of slaves in empire illegal (1807) and freeing slaves (1834), other countries followed
How did ending the Atlantic slave trade effect former slaves?
- land wasn’t redistributed to them, so they got unoccupied land around the Caribbean (peasant agriculture)
- Southern USA: legally free, high-dependent labor replaced slavery (low pay/in debt)
- no political equality (except Haiti)
- US: “radical reconstruction” have former slaves rights, changed to harsh segregation laws, no voting rights, racism. etc.
nationalism
- concept of being loyal/identifying with your nature and it’s culture
- caused by Atlantic Revolutions bc nations were made w/o a foreign power
- led to new separate countries in EU and rivalries/competition between them for colonies
- led to rivalries between Americas (ex. MX America war)
- led to WWI
What political ideologies formed bc of nationalism?
civic nationalism - liberal democracy and representative govt. of the people (diff. culture and ppl, ex. “becoming American”
radical nationalism - Germany, excluded Jews
conservative nationalism - against socialism and feminism
feminism
- big organized movement questioning the belief that women were below men
- developed 100 years after French Revolution bc it gave the possibility of re-creating society + women were involved (esp. in EU and USA)
- rooted in Enlightenment thinkers
Condorcet
French writer in Enlightenment, believed and argued for equality for the sexes
Vindication of the Rights of Woman
book by Mary Wollstonecraft, one of the earliest expressions of feminism
What was the 1st organized expression of feminism?
Women’s Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, NY
*transatlantic movement bc EU and American women went to same conferences + communicated (developed feminist consciousness)
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
paraphrased Declaration of Independence to include women at the Women’s Rights Convention and published a women’s bible removing parts she found offensive
suffrage
right to vote in elections, key issue in feminist movement that had growing support by 1870s
Effects of feminist movement in the 1900s
- upper and middle class could go to uni
- literacy rates up
- lot of US states passes better property/wage management laws
- divorce laws loosened
- women could work in medicine, teaching, Florence Nightingale attracted nurses in Britain, Jane Addams attracted social workers (USA)
- suffrage pretty much universal by mid 1900s
Emily Davison
British feminist who died by throwing herself in front of the King’s horse in a 1913 race
maternal feminism
women’s rights based on their role as mothers, accessing civil/political life thru their children (mainly in France)
2 main causes of Industrial Revolution
global population growth and lack of energy sources
fossil fuels
coal, oil, natural gas first used in Industrial Revolution
steam engine
coal-powered, had around limitless power to fuel machines, trains, ships in Industrial revolution
guano
seabird poop used as fuel by Europe, found in Peru in the 1800s
Anthropocene
“age of man”, an era that was started by the Industrial Revolution
British textile industry
52 million pounds of cottom made in 1800 -> 588 million pounds by 1850
*growth bc of Industrial revolution
How did the aristocratic class change as a result of the industrial revolution?
- Owning land wasn’t seen as wealthy anymore, replaced by urban wealth (businessmen, manufacturers, bankers)
- businessmen replaced aristocrats in parliament
middle-class society
- below aristocrats but benefited the most from Industrial Revolution
- created from British Industrial Revolution
- upper-middle class assimilated into wealthy class
- jobs: smaller businessmen, doctor, lawyer, journalist, etc.
Reform Bill of 1832
gave many middle-class men the right to vote (not women)
*demonstrates the middle class becoming prominent/influential in society
ideology of domesticity
what was expected of middle class women
- homemaking, child rearing, charitable activities, “refined” things (embroidery, music, drawing)
- paid employment and life outside of the home was only for men
*although they did start working in small #s in the 1800s
lower middle class
people in the service sector (clerks, salespeople, bank tellers, hotel staff, secretaries, phone operators, police, etc.)
*represented men and women being a part of the middle class bc they were separated from labor class
Laboring classes
- at least 70% of English population
- manual workers in mines, ports, factories, construction, farms
- suffered most + benefited least from Industrial Revolution
urbanization
population increase and rural people moving to cities for work = new cities formed = overcrowding
*polluted, bad sanitation, diseases, etc.
industrial factories
mass-produced goods where the labor class worked
*long hours, low pay, child labor, monotonous, discipline
What was the gender hierarchy in industrial factories?
- men had supervisor/skilled positions, women less skilled jobs w/o advancement and lower wages
- not allowed in trade unions
- only girls and young women, had to leave when they married
trade unions
- organizations for factory workers where they received self-help groups, insurance for illness, a decent funeral, and social life
- legalized in 1824
- joined effort to get better wages and working conditions
- protested by breaking machines, burning mill, strikes, etc.
Karl Marx
1818-1883, German who witnessed British Industrial Revolution and said it was an unstable system that would collapse bc of revolts and form a socialist society (used French Revolution as evidence)
industrial capitalism
capitalists/investors investing in factories and machines that were used for mass production (made money by selling goods)
socialism
- govt. and community sharing resources to reduce the gap between the rich and the poor
- created by Karl Marx, who inspired socialist movements, political parties, etc.
Labour Party
- English working-class political party that was made in the 1890s
- advocated for a social democracy (not full Marxist socialism, but w/ reformist elements)
communism
all property and resources shared with no social classes
Were Karl Marx’s socialist predictions correct?
No
- didn’t predict middle class (30% pop.)
- labor class got better conditions within a capitalist society bc of trade unions (better wages, diets, sanitation, right to vote, etc.)
- nationalism bound workers to their country instead of class (ex. WWI)
Why did Britain not become the most powerful Industrial society?
They were the first, so businessmen committed to early machinery and other countries (ex. USA) who industrialized after them modernized more
mass exodus of Europeans
1815-1939, 20% Europe population (50-55 mil) moved to Americas, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa + more
What were the causes of the mass exodus of Europeans?
Industrial Revolution -> poverty, growing population, end of peasant farming and artisan manufacturing
immigrant experience
US made into “melting pot” myth, where immigrants were “un-American”, inferior, blamed for crime, labor unrest, and socialism
How did the United States become the world’s leading industrial power by the early 1900s?
After the Civil War
- huge size
- available natural resources
- expanding domestic market
- relative political stability
- the govt. supported industrialization (tax breaks, land grants, laws for corporations)
assembly line
unfinished product moves along different workers in a factory who each do a different part
*mass-production technique invented by USA (also made interchangeable parts and scientific management)
Henry Ford
American industrialist who made the Model T, making cars available to ordinary ppl
*one of USA’s self-made industrial heroes
Why was socialism in the USA so weak even though there was social inequality and bad conditions for the working class?
- labor unions were conservative and focused on workers, not political parties (so none made)
- mass migration from US in mid 1800s made labor class diverse on top of the preexisting racial divide (hard to unite)
- bc of economic growth, labor workers got better living standards (cheaper land and homeowning more available)
- by 1910, more white-collar workers (sales/service) than factory workers who had middle-class dreams separate from socialism
*ultimately, socialism became “un-American”
Progressives
Americans who fought for reforms like wages, better sanitation, antitrust laws, and greater government intervention in the economy (against capitalist govt.)
Why did Russia fall behind in global industrialization?
- Russia remained an absolute monarchy (tsar that only answered to God)
- no parliament, political parties, nationwide elections
- society dominated by titled nobility
abolition of serfdom
- Russian state in 1861, because they lost the Crimean War to Britain and France
- Russian govt. thought having serfdom was what was holding back their modernization and development
- started Russian industrialization
How did Marxist socialism develop in Russia?
The working class had a 13 hour work day, ruthless discipline, disrespect from supervisors and no legal way to complain (large-scale strikes)
*educated Russians found hope in socialism
Russian Social Democratic Labor Party
Made in 1898 illegally, involved in worker’s education, making unions, revolutionary action
*shows how socialism was growing/taking hold of Russia
Russian Revolution of 1905
Russian workers formed unions and political parties out in open against the tsarist regime bc of the govt.’s refusal to change its ways
Duma
Russian national assembly, allowed bc of Russian Revolution of 1905 (along w/ constitution, legalizing trade unions and political parties, etc.)
Causes of Russian Revolution of 1917
- tsar’s limited reforms were often not practiced (didn’t end worker’s radicalism and unrest in society)
- WWI caused power to be shifted to radical socialist groups (Bolshevskis)
What was significant about the Russian Revolution of 1917?
It made Russia the only country were Marxism had power = world’s first socialist society
What was life like after the Latin American revolutions?
Very violent
- low pop, small lifestock herds, closed silver mines, abandoned farms, low int. trade/investment capital, empty national treasuries
- Split into 18 separate countries, bad conditions in all led to wars (Peru/Bolivia, Mexico/US, Argentina+Brazil+Uruguay/Paraguay)
- unstable political life
- social life stayed same (creole white men had resources above women and former slaves)
caudillos
- military strongmen who had power as defenders of order and property
- received power bc of unstable politics after Latin American revolutions
- changed quickly (constitutions did too) = unstable politics cont.
How did Latin America become integrated into the global economy?
- steamship cut sailing time between Britain and Argentina in half,
- underwater telegraph allowed EU news to be communicated to Latin America
Latin American Export Boom
~60 years after 1850, increased value of exported goods by 10x
- exported natural resources to Europe, imported textiles/machines/weapons/luxury goods from Europe and USA
How was Latin America economically connected to EU and USA?
- invested in EU capital ($10 billion between 1870-1919), most from Britain who invested a lot in Argentina
- US businesses controlled 40% Mexican property, produced half of their oil
How did Latin American industrialization parallel European Industrial Revolutions?
- economies grew bc of better sanitation and rapid urbanization
- attracted poor whites w/ promise of better life (to be like EU)
- upper-class (higher property value) and middle class (valuable to modern society) benefited
- low class factory workers didn’t benefit (majority pop.)
What happened to the working class bc of industrialization in Latin America?
Govt. attacked them for sharing land and being in debt to wealthy landowners, so they were pushed to poor areas (dependent laborers, peons on hacienda)
*terrible wages
= protests and violence
Mexican Revolution
- 1910-1920, bloody war and 1 million Mexicans died
- against dictator Porfirio Díaz
- middle class reformers joined workers and peasants (huge peasant armies led by Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata)
1917 Mexican Constitution
- effect of Mexican Revolution (only big one, no global effect)
- gave universal male suffrage, redistributed land, Catholic Church w/o role in public education or landowning, worker rights, etc.
Why did the Latin American export boom never turn into a Latin American Industrial Revolution?
- there could only be competition between domestic manufacturing and foreign goods if there were high tariffs, but Latin Americans embraced the concept of free trade with EU
- economically powerful groups benefited from exporting farm products
- 90% pop. was poor so the market was really small
dependent development
Latin American economic success from exports that were DEPENDENT on European and American success and decisions
United Fruit Company
- US-owned banana company in Central America
- allied w/ large landowners and politicians
- pressured Central American govt.s to maintain conditions in favor of US businesses
- controlled Panama canal and got Puerto Rico as territory after Spanish-American war
*shows indirect imperialism of the US on Central America + how they prevented their growth
“banana republics”
- US called Central American countries it had businesses with (they were exploiting w/ banana industry)
- Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Mexico
Suez Canal
made in 1869 and allowed EU to reach Asia, Africa, and the pacific w/ their ships
malaria (mosquitoes)
made Europeans die in the tropics but stopped by quinine
scientific racism
- scientists in 1800s measured human skulls and said white people had more larger and therefore advanced skulls
- biologists ranked humans like they ranked plants and animals (white at top, “child races” below)
*used to justify racism bc race = intelligence
civilizing mission
EU bringing Christianity to ‘heathen’, good govt. to ‘disordered’ lands, work discipline and production for market to ‘lazy natives’, education to illiterate, clothes to naked, healthcare, supressing ‘native customs’
*viewed as progress to ‘civilize’ ‘inferior’ races by imposing EU culture/customs
*Paternalism
Social Darwinism
Darwin’s survival of the fittest applied to races to justify EU imperialism
*EUs supposedly dominant over other races and ‘meant’ to dominate weaker races
informal rule
economic penetration and occasional military without a full colonial takeover
British East India Company
took over South Asia (instead of the British govt. doing it)
scramble for Africa
1875-1900, 6 European powers against each other to split Africa into different colonies for themselves (abrupt and deliberate colonization)
Battle of Islandlwana
1879, British defeated Zulu army
*shows how Africa resisted colonialism
Berlin Conference
1879, British beat Zulu army
Battle of Adowa
1896, Ethiopia beat Italy and expanded their empire
*only independent African nation, shows how they resisted imperialism
Western-educated class
- Members served colonies, European business, Christian missions as teachers/clerks/translators
- could get higher education abroad to be doctors, lawyers, engineers, journalists
- Europe depended on them
*shows how a minority of ppl cooperated w/ colonial authority bc they benfited
Indian Rebellion of 1857-1858
- caused by colonies’ new cartridge with cow and pig fat (Muslims and Hindus thought they were being converted to Christians)
- rebellion from Indian troops in Bengal + spread
- popular bc some used it to try and revive Mughal Empire
subsistence farming
peasant families produced for their own needs (before imperialism)
export economies
international trade and making products make up large part of economy
*economies of EU colonies
coerced labor
forced labor used in many European colonies
Congo Free State
cruel forced labor to make rubber that killed many villagers in Congo (Belgian colony)
*labor controlled by private companies under state authority
King Leopold II
- King of Belgium that personally led Congo Free State
- private control ended in 1908 by Belgian govt. bc of scandal in EU
cultivation system
- system made by the Dutch implemented in Java (Indonesia)
- native farmers forced to dedicate some of their land to growing cash crops for Netherlands’ profit
- Dutch gained money, Java peasants in debt + famiens bc of double burden to colony and local lords
Maji Maji Rebellion
1904-1905, East Africans colonized by Germany successfully ended forced cotton cultivation
*shows colonial ppl resisting EUs
cash-crop production
making/growing products for colonial authorities to sell for their own profit
Examples of cash crop production in colonies and its affect
Burma - rice, good
Vietnam - bad bc of environment
Gold Coast (Ghana) - cacao, good bc self made but bad bc of labor shortage
wage labor
- colonial subjects migrating to be employed in EU-owned plantations, mines, construction projects, homes
- migrated bc of needing money, not enough land to support family, order of colonial authority
- globally, there were terrible working and living conditions in barracks ppl lived in
“native reserves”
- limited areas for native Africans that couldn’t support the growing population (many forced to work for wages on EU farms)
- after Atlantic slave trade, EU settlers came in and made colonies in Africa (made native ppl laborers)
How did changing labor systems bc of EU imperialism affect women in Africa?
They got a bigger workload bc men controlled cash crop production and then migrated for wage labor
- normal roles: farming, planting, weeding, food, child care, etc.
- took over male roles, domestic economy (small-scale trade and marketing), gave men food in cities (bc of their low wages)
- took over households
What did senior African men want to control thru legislation when women got opportunities in mission schools, towns and mines?
sexuality and mobility
What did Europeans pass on of their modernization to colonies?
- modern administrative/bureaucratic structures
- communication/transportation (railroads, motorways, ports, telegraph, post)
- schools to train army
- modern health care
What was education seen as in the eyes of colonial subjects?
- a magical power that promised social mobility and elite status (embraced EU culture bc of it)
- Western educated elite viewed themselves as leading group of modernization in line w/ colonial authority
*weren’t treated equally + turned against EU in long run
What was the appeal of Christianity to colonial subjects
- military defeat in America lessened confidence in old gods/local practices
- associated w/ modern education
- oppressed groups (young, poor, women) got more freedom w/ missions
female circumcision
- removing a pubescent girl’s clitons and adjacent genital tissue to initiate rites of her coming of age in Africa (Gikuyu ppl in Kenya)
- missionaries against it bc it physically damaged girls and brought attention to “non-spiritual” part of sex
*shows differences in African + EU culture in same religion, led to African ver. Christianity
Africanization of Christianity
- African converts made independent schools and churches to practice faith/education w/o missionary involvement
- left mission schools/churches -> own form of Christianity
*blend of Africa + EU culture
Hinduism (identity)
Intellectuals defined Hinduism as separate religion w/ same culture/influence/importance as Christianity
*cultural foundation for India as nation + Muslims being separate community
How did Britain contribute to Muslims in India becoming a separate/distinct community from Hindus?
- United Hindus and Muslims separately by giving them each a set of inheritance laws
- anti-British patriots cast India as Hindu (started Hindu/Islam political divion in 1900s)
Swami Vivekananda
1863-1902, of 1800s India’s most influential religious figures to revive Hinduism and uplift village communities (heart of Indian civilization)
African identity
- began forming in late 1800s, BROADER African identity (not by community, language, religion, state of empire)
- formed to revive cultural and self confidence as a result of EU colonization/oppression
Edward Blyden
- 1832-1912, West African born in West Indes and educated in USA
- popular scholar and political official in Liberia
- argued that there are differences between races, but each one contributes smn diff. to world civilization (Africa’s harmonious relationship w/ nature + religious sensibility set it apart from EU)
*shows African identity in the world being formed
idea of “tribe”
- ethnic identity in Africa
- cause: EU notion (British) from colonial administration bc of belief of African primitiveness
- spread bc British group Africans for job apps, schools, ID cards (useful in growing urban areas + to feel security)
Igbo
ppl in SE Nigeria, by 1940s organized on national level to achieve tribal unity (term Igbo didn’t exist 50 years b4)
*effect of tribes forming
