Quantitative: Questionnaires (Primary)

Question 1

What are questionnaires?

Answer 1

• An easy way to gather data.
• Can be distributed at home and returned by post or in person can be completed on the spot.

Question 2

What are close ended questions?

Answer 2

Respondents can choose from a limited range of answers predetermined by the researcher.

Question 3

What are open ended questions?

Answer 3

Respondents free to give whatever answer they wish with no pre-selected answers.

Question 4

What are practical advantages of questionnaires?

Answer 4

• Cheap and quick.
• Gather large amounts of data from large numbers of people. Dewson (2001) posted 4,000 questionnaires to students at 14 higher education institutions.
• There is no need to recruit and train interviewers or observers.
• Data is usually easy to quantify especially with close-ended questions.

Question 5

What are advantages of questionnaires when measuring reliability?

Answer 5

• A reliable method of data collection.
• When research is repeated using the same questions in the same order with the same choice of answers.
• Postal or online questionnaires → there is no researcher present to influence respondents’ answers.
• So long as a similar sample is used, results should be replicated.
• If there are differences we can usually safely assume this is down to genuine differences between respondents.
• Allow comparisons over time and between societies.

Question 6

What are advantages of questionnaires when testing hypothesis?

Answer 6

• It’s useful for testing hypotheses.
• For example, it could be used to show whether there is a correlation between children’s achievement levels and family size.
• It can make statements about the possible causes of low achievements based on data and then predictions about which children are most likely to underachieve.
• Favoured by positivists as they enable identification of possible causes.

Question 7

What are advantages of questionnaires in relation to detachment and objectivity?

Answer 7

• They are detached and objective.
• Postal questionnaires completed at distance.

Question 8

What are advantages of questionnaires when measuring representativeness?

Answer 8

• Large sample = more representative.
• Researchers who use questionnaires tend to be better at obtaining and selecting a representative sample.
• Allows more accurate generalisations to be made.

Question 9

What are ethical advantages of questionnaires?

Answer 9

• Very few ethical issues.
• Intrusive or sensitive questions may be asked to respondents → generally are under no obligation to answer them.
• Anonymous.

Question 10

What are practical disadvantages?

Answer 10

• Data can be limited and superficial due to being brief.
• Limits the amount of information that can be gathered.
• Questionnaires may be a cheap method of obtaining data, however incentives may need to be offered.
• Postal and online → respondents may not receive it. Can’t guarantee the questionnaire was completed by the intended person.

Question 11

How does the fact that questionnaires have a low response rate act as a disadvantage?

Answer 11

• Few of those who receive questionnaires complete them or if they do return them.
• Hite (1991) - sent out 100,000 questionnaires to find out about ‘love, passion and emotional violence’ in America but only 4.5% returned.
• Follow-up questionnaires, collection by hand → adds to cost and time.
• Non response can be caused by faulty questionnaire design, e.g. complex language.
• If respondents are different from non-respondents will produce distorted and unrepresentative results and therefore no accurate generalisations can be made.

Question 12

How are questionnaires inflexible?

Answer 12

• An inflexible method.
• Questions chosen and finalised can’t be changed.
• Can’t explore any new areas of interest.
• Unstructured interviews = more flexibility.

Question 13

How is it a disadvantage that questionnaires are snapshots?

Answer 13

• It’s only a snapshot of one moment in time.
• Fails to produce a fully valid picture.
• It doesn’t capture people’s attitudes or changes in behaviour.

Question 14

How is it a disadvantage that questionnaires are detached?

Answer 14

• Cicourel (1968) → data form questionnaires lack validity.
• Can only get a valid picture by using methods that allow us to get close to the subjects of the study and share their meanings.
• We should be able to put ourselves in the subject’s place and see the world through their eyes.
• The most detached of all primary methods.
• It can involve no direct contact between the researcher and respondent.
• No way to clarify what the questions mean to the respondents → there’s no way of knowing if the respondent and researcher both interpret the questions or answers in the same way.

Question 15

How is it a disadvantage for questionnaires that lying, forgetting and ‘right answerism’ takes place?

Answer 15

• Depends on the respondents’ willingness and ability to provide full and accurate data.
• Questions about validity when respondents give answers that are not full or honest.
• May lie, forget, not know or understand, try to please or second guess the researcher.
• Gives ‘respectable’ answers they feel they ought to give, rather than tell the truth.

Question 16

How is it a disadvantage that teachers’ meanings are imposed?

Answer 16

• Interpretivists argue questionnaires are more likely to impose the researcher’s own meanings than to reveal those of the responder.
• The researcher decides what is important by choosing the questions to ask.
• Close ended questions = respondents have to fit their view into what is on offer. No further opportunities for explanation or ideas.
• Open ended questions = when answers are coded for quantifiable data, similar but non-identical answers may be lumped together into the same category.

Question 17

How are questionnaires practical?

Answer 17

• A quick and cheap way of gathering large amounts of quantitative data from large numbers of people. Widely spread geographically.
• Cheaper than other methods → there is no need to recruit and train interviewers.
• Data is usually easy to quantify, especially when pre-coded questions are used.

Question 18

How are questionnaires impractical?

Answer 18

• Data can be limited and superficial → questionnaires are brief by nature.
• Offer of incentives adds to cost.
• Postal and emailed questionnaires - cannot be sure if an unreturned questionnaire was ever actually received. It also cannot guarantee the intended recipient completed it.
• Low response rate = major problem.
• Inflexible.
• Less suitable for investigating unfamiliar topics → questions are drawn up in advance.
• Snapshots don’t look at how people’s attitudes and behaviour changes over time.

Question 19

How ethical are questionnaires?

Answer 19

• Respondents are not obliged to answer questions.
• Researchers should take care to not cause harm.
• Gain respondents’ informed consent.
• Parental consent may be required.
• Confidentiality is usually easy to guarantee.

Question 20

Methods in Context links.
What can questionnaires be used for?

Answer 20

• Subject and uni choice.
• Bullying and the experience of schooling.
• Achievement and school factors.
• Parental attitudes to education.

Question 21

How is the operationalisation of concepts used in questionnaires?

Answer 21

• Turning abstract ideas into a measurable form.
• Pupils’ grasp of abstract concepts is usually less than adults → it may be difficult to turn sociological concepts such as ‘cultural capital’ or ‘deferred gratification’ into language that pupils will understand.
• May produce answers based on misunderstanding.
• Danger of over simplification of questions.

Question 22

How are samples and a sampling frame used in questionnaires?

Answer 22

• Routine lists that schools keep can provide accurate sampling frames.
• Ready made samples → classes, teaching departments, year groups, etc.
• May not keep lists that reflect researchers interests, e.g. ethnicity → may be denied access to confidential information.
• The researcher needs schools’ permission to hand out questionnaires.
• Help researchers reach parents.
• Peer group pressure when completing, e.g. standing over somebody answering the questionnaire will most likely influence their answers.
• It is a formal document = off-putting for pupils.

Question 23

What is the access and response rate for questionnaires?

Answer 23

• Response rates are low.
• May cause disruption to lessons → lesson time taken away.
• May object to the focus of research.
• When conducted in schools, return rates are higher.
• May therefore produce more representative data from which to draw generalisations.
• Pupils, parents and teachers are more used to completing questionnaires.
• Teachers may be too busy to complete.

Question 24

What are further practical issues of questionnaires?

Answer 24

• Quick and cheap way of gaining lots of data.
• Rutter (1979) collected data from 12 secondary schools. Used it to correlate data on achievement, attendance and behaviour with variables such as school size, class size and number of staff. This would have been difficult to do with more labour-intensive methods such as interviewing or observation.
• However, data did not provide explanations for the correlations.
• Respondents need to be able to read and understand the questions, therefore it is not suitable for young children or perhaps those with certain learning difficulties.
• Children generally have a shorter attention span, therefore questionnaires need to be brief → this limits the amount of information that can be gathered
• Children’s life experiences are narrower and recall is different to adults → children may therefore not ‘know’ the answers.
• Schools have active informal communication channels. The impact of this may affect validity.
• Teachers may be able to analyse the patterns of questions and recognise the researchers aims or intentions. May adjust answers accordingly = data low in validity.

Question 25

How is anonymity and detachment enforced in questionnaires?

Answer 25

• Anonymity can overcome fear or embarrassment → is useful for researching sensitive issues such as bullying.
• Pupils may be more likely to divulge details of experiences = possibly more valid data.
• Remaining anonymous is a concern.
• Teachers may feel able to give more honest answers.
• Interpretivists emphasise the importance of developing a rapport, therefore reject questionnaires.
• Formal, official looking documents = children may refuse to cooperate or take the activity seriously = incomplete or data low in validity.