Quantitative Data

Question 1

Give three general features of quantitative research

Answer 1

1. Is generally scientific in nature
2. Is based upon proving a hypothesis
3. Takes a positivist approach

Question 2

Give the 5 elements of the hierarchy of evidence

Answer 2

1. Systematic reviews
2. Clinical trials
3. Observational studies
4. Case reports
5. Opinions or ideas

Question 3

Describe a randomised control trial

Answer 3

A drug or treatment is tested against a placebo using a group of subjects. Typically those who receive the effective drug are randomly selected to ensure objectivity.

Question 4

Describe single, double and triple blinding in randomised controlled trials.

Answer 4

Single: patient is not aware of the treatment being received
Double: patient and researcher are not aware of the treatment being received
Triple: patient, researcher and data analysers are not aware of the treatment being received

Question 5

Describe a cohort study

Answer 5

Groups of people demonstrating defining characteristics will be studied (typically for a period of time). Groups typically experience a common event collectively.

Question 6

Describe a case control method of data collection

Answer 6

Case control studies compare groups of individuals generally comparing one group who demonstrate certain characteristics to another group who do not. Aims to identify a relationship between a risk factor and disease prevention.

Question 7

Define the difference between a hypothesis and a null hypothesis:

Answer 7

A hypothesis predicts the possibility of something taking place, whereas a null hypothesis predicts the possibility of something not taking place.

Question 8

How may bias occur within surveys taken as a part of quantitative data collection (give three answers)

Answer 8

1. insufficient sample size
2. slow response rate of participants
3. poor analysis of data and data findings

Question 9

Give two types of survey in relation to time

Answer 9

1. longitudinal (surveys are taken at regular intervals over a long period of time)
2. cross sectional (surveys are undertaken at a single point in time)

Question 10

Name 5 methods of data collection in quantitative research

Answer 10

1. Closed ended questionairres
2. Closed ended interviews
3. Experiments
4. Clinical trials
5. Surveys

Question 11

What does quantitative research begin with?

Answer 11

A hypothesis or a null hypothesis.

Question 12

Which type of data is used within quantitative research?

Answer 12

Numerical figures or statistics.

Question 13

What is the basis of knowing within quantitative research?

Answer 13

Quantitative research examines the cause and effect relationship between variables involved in research.

Question 14

Is the researcher involvement within quantitative research subjective or objective?

Answer 14

The researcher takes an objective approach within quantitative research to ensure that data is not obscured by bias.

Question 15

How do quantitative research studies control the influence of extraneous variables?

Answer 15

By conducting their studies in a controlled lab environment.

Question 16

What is the theoretical focus of quantitative research? Inductive or deductive? Why?

Answer 16

Quantitative research takes a deductive approach because it focuses on the hypothesis established and aims to save time and reduce wastage of resources available.

Question 17

What are the two types of data analysis used in quantitative research?

Answer 17

1. Descriptive- aims to highlight the data gathered without drawing a conclusion.
2. Inferential- aims to use the data to draw assumptions and reach a conclusion.

Question 18

Are quantitative research findings generalisable?

Answer 18

YES.

Question 19

What are the three types of quantitative research design?

Answer 19

1. Experimental- uses manipulation and controlled testing to understand processes. Participants are randomly assigned. Has a control group and an intervention.
2. Quasi-experimental- an independant variable is manipulated without the random assignment of participants. Aims to evaluate interventions without random allocation of participants.
3. Descriptive/non-experimental- A group of subjects whom cannot be manipulated by the experimenter. No control group, intervention or randomisation.

Question 20

What is a systematic review?

Answer 20

A systematic review assesses and evaluates all research that analyses a particular clinical issue. Only data which matches criteria is included in the review which ensures relevancy.

Question 21

Name the ‘gold standard’ experimental design within quantitative research.

Answer 21

Randomised control trials- include a randomised sample, a control group and an intervention. Each participant has an equal chance of receiving the intervention which helps to eradicate bias.

Question 22

A cohort study is a descriptive, non experimental study. Describe what takes place in a cohort study.

Answer 22

A cohort study examines a group of individuals who demonstrate defining characteristics, For example- a group who have undergone a particular event together. The group is then studied for a period of time.

Question 23

A case control study is a descriptive, non experimental study. Describe what takes place in a case control study.

Answer 23

Identifies participants who demonstrate an outcome of interest and a group of control patients who do not display this outcome of interest. The groups are compared and the aim is to establish a risk factor leading to disease.

Question 24

An observational study is a descriptive, non experimental study. Describe what takes place in an observational study.

Answer 24

A study which observes anything that can be effectively measure such as differences in size, shape colour etc.

Question 25

A survey is a descriptive, non experimental study. Describe what takes place in a survey.

Answer 25

Survey's use questionairres, interviews and alternative data collection tools. They can be longitudinal (take place over a long period of time) or cross sectional (data collected at one period of time only). They seek to find variables which can be related to one another.

Question 26

What is meant by probability sampling within quantitative research?

Answer 26

The likelyhood of a person being selected within the sample is known. Researchers want to identify a representative sample from which to collect data so that the data can be generalised. In order to achieve this generalisability, all elements in the target population much have an equal chance of being selected.

Question 27

What is meant by non-probability sampling in quantitative research?

Answer 27

The likelihood of a person or event being selected is unknown. It is therefore unknown whether the sample can be used to represent a larger portion of the population.

Question 28

What does a p value of LESS than 0.05 suggest?

Answer 28

A p value of less than 0.05 would suggest that there is a significant difference from what was predicted within the null hypothesis. Therefore the null hypothesis can be rejected. The alternative hypothesis will be used instead.

Question 29

What does a p value of MORE than 0.05 suggest?

Answer 29

A p value of more than 0.05 would suggest that there is not a significant enough difference against the null hypothesis to reject it. Therefore the null hypothesis is accepted.

Question 30

Define validity within research.

Answer 30

Validity is the extent to which the results of the study are likely to represent what they intend to. I.e. whether the results measure what they are supposed to measure.

Question 31

Define external validity within research.

Answer 31

Can the results of the research be generalised to the wider population?

Question 32

Define internal validity within research.

Answer 32

Are there any factors which are likely to of affected the research whilst it was taking place i.e. external variables. NOTE: within quantitative research, studies typically take place within a controlled environment which reduce the likelihood of results being effected by external variables.

Question 33

Define reliability within research.

Answer 33

Reliability is the likelihood of the results being the same if the research analysis were to be repeated multiple times.

Question 34

What is the relationship between reliability and validity within research?

Answer 34

Results can be reliable (i.e. they can be repeated and produce the same data) but not valid (i.e. they can not be generalised to the wider population or represent fact).

Question 35

What does a confidence interval indicate?

Answer 35

The range of values which are likely to include the specified population. A 95% confidence interval states that there is a 95% chance that the results collected will include the population needed.

Question 36

Why is it important to include confidence intervals within research?

Answer 36

They help to indicate clinical significance when results are not statistically significant.

Question 37

How do we define statistical significance within research?

Answer 37

By establishing a P value. The smaller the P value the more significant the research and the more likely a hypothesis is to be rejected.

Question 38

What is the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics?

Answer 38

Descriptive statistics describe what can be directly observed within data sets. I.e. what the data demonstrates. Inferential statistics make assumptions about the data collected about a particular population.

Question 39

What does PARIHS stand for in relation to clinical research and practice?

Answer 39

``` Promoting Action (on) Research Implementation (in) Health Services ```

Question 40

What is most likely to reduce the likelihood of successfully implementing research findings into practice?

Answer 40

Failing to identify appropriate stakeholders

Question 41

What are the 4 levels of measurement?

Answer 41

N- nominal O- ordinal I- interval R- ratio

Question 42

Which type of hypothesis testing corresponds to nominal data?

Answer 42

Chi-squared

Question 43

Which type of hypothesis testing corresponds to ordinal data?

Answer 43

Spearmans correlation

Question 44

Which type of hypothesis testing corresponds to interval and ratio data?

Answer 44

Pearsons correlation

Question 45

Inferential statistics are used to determine (exam question answer)...

Answer 45

The statistical significance of any observed differences between groups.

Question 46

Which types of data are parametric?

Answer 46

Normally distributed interval or ratio data.

Question 47

Which types of data are non-parametric?

Answer 47

Non normally distributed interval or ratio data as well as nominal and ordinal data.