Qing History Final Flashcards
Yuan Shikai
Prominent military and political leader during the late Qing and early Republic of China
Appointed new leader of Beiyang army following Empress Dowager Cixi’s return from Chengde to stop the 100 days reforms
In 1899, appointed new governor of Shandong and worked to suppress the Boxer Rebellion
In 1903, appointed head of Commission on Military Reorganization, where he instituted numerous Western reforms in education, industry, and military
In 1912, he is sworn in as President of the Republic of China
Works against the Kuomintang party, initially dismissing governors but later outlawing the party in 1913
Declares himself emperor in 1915
Significant for his role in China’s transition from dynastic state to republic, although his actions ultimately led to the destabilization of the early republic
Tongmenghui
Chinese Revolutionary Alliance
Founded in 1905 in Japan by Sun Yat-sen, Huang Xing, and Song Jiaoren
United several anti-Qing revolutionary groups
Significant as it served as the foundation for the Kuomintang/Nationalist Party
Kang Youwei
Chinese elite scholar and reformer who was pivotal in the Hundred Days’ Reform in 1898 under the Guangxu Emperor
Followed the Gongyang Commentary of the Spring and Autumn Annals; viewed Confucius as a forward-thinker whose texts should be adapted to changing political conditions
Conveyed ideas influenced by Confucianism and Western thought in writings
Interprets Confucian classics to have Three Ages
Grand Commonality is the final stage – utopian world where all boundaries are abolished
Advocated self-governance by local communities; constitutional monarchy
Introduced the idea of citizenship
In 1895, Ten Thousand Word Memorial, an initial collection of signatures in protest of Treaty of Shimonoseki to the throne, was ignored
Founded Study Society for National Strengthening shortly after
The Boxer Protocol
Treaty signed in 1901 between the Qing dynasty and the Eight-Nation Alliance following the defeat of the Boxers and marking the end of the Boxer Rebellion, an anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising that emerged in Northern China
Result of the Treaty
Indemnity of 450 million taels of silver (4% interest)
Internal defensive structures destroyed, including forts of Dagu
Foreign occupation (45,000 troops)
Officials punished (execution and exile)
Qing could not buy weapons/munitions for 2 years
Suspended imperial exams for 5 years in areas where rebellion broke out
Commemorations and apologies
The treaty further weakened the Qing Dynasty and spurred the “New Policies”, court-centered reforms led by Empress Dowager Cixi that aimed to save the Qing state
Li Hongzhang
1823–1901
Chinese diplomat and military leader during the late Qing Dynasty
Commanded the Huai Army to suppress the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864)
Negotiated treaties after China’s defeats in the Sino-French War (1884-1885), First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and the Boxer Protocol
Hong Xiuquan
(1813-1864)
Leader of Taiping Rebellion
Hakka failed scholar who became greatly influenced by Christian teaching after receiving a tract
Proclaimed himself younger brother of Jesus Christ
In 1851, founded the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom
Promoted radical reforms, including abolition of private property, separation of men and women, elimination of Confucianism
In 1853, gained control of Nanjing, which was made the capital
Devastating civil war which led to the death of tens of millions; demonstrated the weakness of the Qing state
The Treaty of Nanjing
Signed in 1842 following the Qing defeat the hands of the British of the First Opium War
First of “Unequal Treaties”
Indemnities – 21 million silver taels for British expenses
Pay for right to invade, cost of destroyed opium
New treaty ports – Canton, Ningbo, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Shanghai
Consular representatives to begin official political relations between the British and Qing
Foreigners were allowed to live in ports and travel freely between them
Uniform tariff set by British (set to 5%) – Qing lose control over trade and tariffs; elimination of Cohong monopoly
Difficult to protect domestic production
Cede Hong Kong island to British
Significant for diminishing Qing sovereignty and demonstrated its weakness to Western powers; marks the beginning of the “Century of Humiliation”
100 Days Reforms
July 11, 1898 – September 21, 1898 under the Guangxu Emperor, who wanted to establish his power apart from Empress Dowager Cixi and address the “Scramble for Concessions” that was occurring
Reforms included:
Educational
Imperial university at Beijing
Western-curriculum schools at the local level
Change in contents of Civil Service Examinations
Judicial – implement “rule of law” (modern legal system)
Modernization and training of military
Railroad and industrial project
Second of the Late Qing imperial reforms
Viewed by those involved as an effort to restore China
Reform within Confucian culture
Put to an end by the return of the Empress Dowager Cixi, who revoked all reforms, placed the Guangxu Emperor under house arrest, and executed six reformers
Wuchang Uprising
October 10, 1911 in Wuchang, the capital city of Hubei province
Mutiny broke out in barracks of New Army; unit comprised of many army engineers who belonged to a local revolutionary group
Chambers of commerce of Wuchang and Hankou declared support and donated funds
Mobilized private militia to support political revolution
Hubei Provincial Assembly declared province’s secession from the Qing empire and intent to create a Han national state, the Republic of China
Significant as the spread of rebellion led to independent secessions by other provinces, leading to the end of the Qing dynasty and ushering in the Republic of China
Tianjin Massacre
1870 in Tianjin
Conflict between local residents and French Catholic missionaries over issues such as child adoption at orphanages
Led to attack on French consulate, Catholic churches, and orphanages
Qing forced to apologize with more indemnities, execution of local officials, etc.
Further emphasized influence of Western powers over the Qing state, and its need to balance domestic and foreign demands
Zongli Yamen
Office of Foreign Affairs established in 1861 to manage diplomatic relations
Worked on revised treaty revising the Treaty of Tianjin in 1868-1869 with British; revising treaty with Russia in 1881
Replaced by the Foreign Ministry in the New Policies (1901) following the Boxer Protocol
Tongzhi Restoration
First of late-Qing reforms (1861-1895) – borrow western technology without changing institutions
Led by Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang, Zhang Zhidong, scholars of the state-craft and substantive learning schools
Spurred by the defeat of the Qing at the hands of the British and French in the Second Opium War
Three stages:
Military technology and diplomatic (1861-1872)
Industrial development (1872-1885)
Rapid military and industrial reform (1885-1895)
Ended and considered a failure following the defeat of the Qing at the hands of the Japanese in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)
Qiu Jin
1875–1907
Chinese revolutionary and feminist
Advocated for women’s rights and women’s education; condoned practices such as foot-binding
Exposed to the ideas of the Tongmenghui and other revolutionary groups while in Japan
Active in organizing anti-Qing uprisings
In 1907 – arrested and executed for participation in attempted uprising
Significant as she is viewed as a feminist icon and remembered for her contributions to early revolutionary action
First Sino-Japanese War
1894–1895 between Qing and Japan
Caused by conflict between Qing and Japan for power over Korea – escalated by Donghak Peasant Rebellion (1894)
Ended with Qing defeat and Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895)
Established Japanese protectorate over Korea
200 million ounces of silver in indemnities
4 new treaty ports; permission for Japanese to build factories and enterprises
Cede Taiwan
Marked the end of the Tongzhi Restoration
Zeng Guofan
Qing local elite and military leader
1856 – permission to raise funds to support provincial army (Hunan army)
Success of regional army weakened central authority of Qing state
Leading official in Tongzhi restoration
Empress Dowager Cixi
1835-1908
Acted as regent for Emperor Tongzhi and Emperor Guangxu
Opposed earlier reform movements, such as Tongzhi Restoration
Suppressed Hundred Days’ Reform (1898)
Supported Boxer Rebellion
Spearheaded New Policies (Xinzheng) movement
New Culture Movement
Movement of elite, young, progressive thinkers – address failed republicanism, warlordism, etc. during Warlord Period (1917-1927)
Included Ci Yuanpei, Chen Duxiu, Hu Shi, Lu Xun, Li Dazhao
Chen Duxiu and others believed Chinese culture was the problem
Chinese culture and society were repressive
Pointed to Confucian patriarchal family system
Saw in China obedience to tradition over science, nationality, progress
Path to real reform led to changing minds – social and intellectual, eventually political
Chen Duxiu founds New Youth magazine
Diary of a Madman by Lu Xun published in magazine; argues Confucianism self-destructive
Did not blame Manchus; blamed Chinese tradition itself, especially the five relationships in Confucianism
Self-determination – many believed end of WWI would lead to self-determination in China, removal of colonial powers
Japan had negotiated with Western powers for recognition of control over Shandong, previously German concessions
Provided ideological foundation for further modernization movements, such as May Fourth Movement (1919)
New Policies (Xinzheng)
Dramatic court-centered reforms (1901 – 1908) spearheaded by the Empress Dowager Cixi and Manchu imperial elite
Reforms included:
Education reforms
1901 – National Education System
1902 – Scholarships for overseas education
1905 – End of civil service exam system
Loss of career path for many people → new students turn to revolutionary movements
Military reforms
1903 – Bureau of Military Training
1904 – New Army (Commission of Military Reorganization)
Qing needed to redesign training of military
Military academies produce new class of patriotic soldiers
Goal – strengthen and preserve the Qing dynasty
Reforms nurture a sense of nationalism in new social groups of students, soldiers, and urban elites
Divergence of Qing state and Chinese nation
Liang Qichao
(1873 – 1929) Prominent Chinese scholar and reformer
Advocated for reforms to Qing government through Hundred Days’ Reform
In exile, continued to write and promote ideas of nationalism
Reform people’s minds, not institution → turn subjects into citizens
Promoted ideas in the nature of social Darwinism
Claims China lacks the concept of the nation
Refers to the idea that sovereignty comes from the people, not the emperor
Loyalty is to the nation, not directly the state
Subject – someone who serves the state vs. citizen – someone who has rights and responsibilities to other citizens, state, nation
The Guangxu Emperor
(1871-1908) ruled from 1875-1908, with the Empress Dowager Cixi acting as regent
1898 – Guangxu Emperor attempted to introduce series of progressive reforms through the Hundred Days’ Reform
Emperor Guangxu learning about the West, wants to take control from aunt Empress Dowager Cixi’s, who served as regent
Scramble for Concessions – foreign powers lay claim to different areas of China
Shandong (Germany), Fujian (Japan), Yangtze region (British), Manchuria and Xinjiang (Russia), Indo-China region (France)
Result – Empress Dowager Cixi staged coup and placed Guangxu Emperor under house arrest – majority of his rule was largely under the control of Cixi
Sun Yatsen
Significant role in establishment of Republic of China
1894 – Founds Revive China Association
1895 – Plans first of several unsuccessful uprisings; funded 10 uprisings over 15 years (all fail)
1905 – co-founded Revolutionary Alliance (Tongmenghui – United League)
Published political philosophy in Three Principles of People – nationalism, democracy, and livelihood
Though not present for Wuchang uprising, was briefly appointed provisional president of Republic in 1912 before ceding power to Yuan Shikai
His Revolutionary Army formed the Kuomintang Party, significant in Republic
New Army
Military force established as part of the New Policies, after the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)
Qing needed to redesign military to emulate Western-style training, weaponry, and structure of military
Formed a new class of subjects within the Qing empire through military training – patriotic and embraced ideas of nationalism
Units of New Army responsible for Wuchang Uprising as part of the revolution in 1911 and the fall of the Qing Dynasty
Scramble for Concessions
Late 1800s (following second Opium War) where foreign nations, including Britain, France, Germany, Japan, and Russia, pressured Qing through treaties into giving the control over regions of China
Driven by imperialist desire to exploit China’s resources
Weakend Qing Dynasty’s sovereignty and drove reform movements such as Hundred Days’ Reform
Fueled nationalist movements from resentment against foreign dominance
