Pursuing Life and Liberty Equality in the USA 1945-68 Flashcards
What are the three Branches of the US governement? How did they make it difficult for progress to be made in Civil Rghts?
What are the three Branches of the US governement? How did they make it difficult for progress to be made in Civil Rghts?What are the three Branches of the US governement? How did they make it difficult for progress to be made in Civil Rghts?What are the three Branches of the US governement? How did they make it difficult for progress to be made in Civil Rghts?What are the three Branches of the US governement? How did they make it difficult for progress to be made in Civil Rghts?What are the three Branches of the US governement? How did they make it difficult for progress to be made in Civil Rghts?What are the three Branches of the US governement? How did they make it difficult for progress to be made in Civil Rghts?What are the three Branches of the US governement? How did they make it difficult for progress to be made in Civil Rghts?What are the three Branches of the US governement? How did they make it difficult for progress to be made in Civil Rghts?What are the three Branches of the US governement? How did they make it difficult for progress to be made in Civil Rghts?
Explain the Reconstruction Period of American Society
The period of Reconstruction was the 25 years following the american civil war attmept were made to improve american society and rebuild the southern states. Two constitutional amendments were passed to give African Americans rights
- The Fourteenth Amenment 1868- gave citizenship rights to all people born in the United States of America and was an attempt to guarantee the rights of the people who had fomerly been slaves
- The Fifteenth Amendment 1870- gave all citizens voting rights regardless of their race
What impact did the WW2 have on the situation for Black Americans in 1945?
The Black soldiers were radicalised by thier war experiences
Poor Conditions:
- over 1.2 million black soliers joined United States army
- northern black trained in rural military camps apalled by southern formal segregation
- segregation of canttens and vehicles
- many denied right to fight and were employed as cooks and cleaners
- black soldiers on the frontline equiped with worse weapons and less trained; black batallions sent to most dangerous parts of the battlefield
- some cases of riots in protest
Exposure to Europe:
- experienced european society where there was no formal segregation and black soldiers were treated like heroes
Contradiction of the Four basic Freedoms:
- Roosevelt argued america was fighting abroad for the four freedoms (freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from want, freedom from fear) Black soldiers thought this was a contradiction when they could not enjoy the four freedoms at home
- double ‘V’ signs used, symbolised them fighting for a double a victory overseas and victory over racism at home
The Racist Opponent:
- the horror of the Nazi’s racist ideologies was revealled in the allied soldiers’ liberation of extermination camps
- KKK had perviously nobilised racism but the Nazi’s atrocities had shown the inherent evil in racism so many now opposed it
Black Heroes:
- the courage of black soldiers and the comradery amongst soldier’s in the war changed many white attitudes; black heroes had a boosted self esteem and expected recognition for their achievement so were determined to challenge racial injustice on their return
Economic Changes:
- Roosevelt issued an executive order ‘the Fair Employment Practises Comission’ in 1941 in respnse to black activist A. Philip Randolph’s threat to lead march to washington becuase of dicriminative employers in the southern war goods factories this also showed how putting pressure on the government could force racial equality
- northern wartime industry boomed causing a second migration of 1940s 1,500,000 blacks from south to north, 1940 1/4 black population lived in the north to 1950 1/3 black americans lived in the north
- end of war 48% black population was urban
- city jobs had better wages so blacks were better paid
- unemployment fell from 937000 in 1940 to 151000 in 1945 (6% white men unemployed, 10% black men unemployed)
Growing Political Power:
- before the war less than 2% southern black americans could vote and in 1945 15% registered to vote
- 1945 16 northern states had black populations between 5-13% which gave the black community balance of power in elections- they voted in blocks and were geographically concentrated in pivotal large closely-contested electoral states (New York, Illinios, Michigan)
- the election of William L. Dawson (1943) and Adam Clayton Powell (1945) to congress
- appointments (remember my example from 1949)
Describe The report ‘To Secure These Rights’ 1947
Background:
- comissioned by truman
- examined the experience of racial minorities in america
- claimed black people received unequal treamtnet and segregation branded them as inferiour and not fit to asociate with white people
- proposed radical reforms, many unworkbale because the local police forces and state governemnts were overwhelmignly racist
problems highlighted
- 300 reported lynchings in the 5 southern states between 1882-1945
- racist police brituality pistol-whipping, beating prisoners with rubber hoses, dragging prisoners through public areas, bullwhipping, denial of medical treatment to prisoners, prisoners tied up and drowned, these methods also used to make prisoners confess to crime they didnt comit
- 18% of black people in southern states were able to vote in 1944 due to grandfather clause and literacy tests
- discrimination in the armed forces, army 1/70 black soldiers promoted to rank officer 1/7 white soldiers promoted, navy 1 white officer:7 white sailors 2/10,000 black sailors promoted
- employment and education, 62% of working black men employed in low-wage farming (28% white men) black worker received 47 cents an hour (65 cents white men) black high school graduates earned $755 a year ($1, 454 white men) black teachers eaned $342 annually ($1,107 white men)
- Helath, 1 black doctor: 3,377 black patients (1 white doctor: 750 white patients) due to refusal of medical school to accept black students
recommendations
- it is the job of federal government to protect and advance the civil right of all americans- reorganising the Civil Rights setion of the Department of Justice so regional offices could enforce civil rights at a local level
- Civil Rights Section of the Department of Justice deserves greater funding
- Fedral government should establish permanent Presidential and Congressional committees to monitor racial equality and make proposals for its improvements
- Federal government should not fund organisations that discriminate on the grounds of race
- laws proposed on lynching that enforce police to intervene to protect black citizens and prosecute lynch mobs
- legislation to outlaw police brutality
- Fair employment Practises Act to end discrimination in employment and make permannent the the Fair Employment Practises Comission
- state governments establish committees to monitor and promote civi rights
- state police receive compulsory training on race issues
- state governments end segregation in education and healthcare
- Local initiatives that denied black citizens the right to vote be abolished
Who was Harry S. Truman? What Action did he Take Towards Civil Rights in the years 1945-51 and how Effective was he?
I_deology:_
- he was moved by stories of black veterans who were victims of racist attacks after fighting corageously in WW2
- he was aware of the growing importance of the black vote to the Democratic Party after Roosevelt’s popularity
- the cold war impacted truman’s committment to civil rights because he believed america had a moral duty to fight communism and promote freedom
Government Action:
- 1946 he established the President’s Committee on Civil Rights and commissioned them to produce the report ‘To Secure These Rights’ which was not able to achieve many of the recommendations due to lack of support in congress
Appointments:
- appointment of african americans to important government roles such as Ralph Bunche appointed american ambassador to the UN; William Hastie federal judge 1949
Federal Governement:
- signed executive order 9980 guaranteeing fair employment practises in the civil service
- signed executive order 10308 establishing the Committee on Governent Contract Compliance (CGCC) to ensure lucrative government defence contracts didnt go to discriminative companies//couldn’t force companies to adopt fair employment pracitses
- prevented federal housing administration from lending money to building projects which made segregated housing//fewer houses were built than that demolished decreasing amount of housing available to african americans
- as part of ‘Fair Deal Programme’ he committed the government to building houses in deprived urban areas to address economic problems faced by African Americans//under-funded lacked support of senior civil servants
Desegregation:
- June 1948 signed executive order 9981 guaranteeing ‘equality of treatment and oppurtunity for all persons in the armed services without regard to race, colour, religion, national origin
- Presidential inauguration ceremony 1949, desegregated the crowd
- attmept to desegragate Dulles Airport in Washington D.C, 1950 proposal denied but he manged to achieve the desegregation of the airport’s restaurant (significance of airport is that it was the first impression foreign dignatories had on arriving in america)
Speeches:
- he was the first president to address the NAACP- in 1947 at Lincoln’s memorial to a crowd of 10,000 he said all americans were entitled to full civil rights and freedom and he urged an end to lynching, poll tax, inequality in education and employment
Describe The 1948 Presidential Election
Truman was vice-president and became president in 1945 on Roosevelt’s death the 1948 presedential election was Truman’s first attmept to be elected president. His presidential campaign had one civil rights speech in harlem (the first president to campaign in harlem) however it was difficult because there was a split in the party due to Truman’s commitment to civil rights which seemingly assured a Republican victory- democrats in the north praised his anti-segregation policies; southern democrats (Dixiecrats) refused to support Truman and put forward their own candidate J. Strom Thurmond. However for the first time a president who was committed to challenging segregation was elected. He had won support of black voters becuase he stood by his policy against opposition, his reelection was demonstrative of the political power of black voters because it proved you could lose the votes of southern racists and still become president
Who were the NAACP? What Action did they Take Towards Civil Rights in the years 1944-1956 and how Effective were they?
The National Group for the Advacnement of Coloured People founded in 1909 by a multi-racial group of campaigners headed by W.E. B DuBois
Ideology:
- They went to court because they believed the american legal system could be used to end segregation
- The American constitution protects the rights of individuals through to the separation of powers therefore american citizens can take federal and state government to court when the government has infringed their constitutional rights
- believed improving education of African AMericans was a prerequisite to improving the lives of African Americans (good jobs, secure income)
Strategy:
- challenge ‘Jim Crow’ laws by appealing to the Fourteenth ammendment and Fifteenth amendment
- they provided funds and experienced lawyers to support court cases of individual black citizens
- 50s they targeted education because it was easy to show that while children were educated separately their education was unequal which highlighted that segregated education was illegal in terms of Plessy V. Ferguson
Court Cases:
- Smith V. Allwright 1944: Lonnie E Smith clallenged Texan all-white primary elections because Texas was a democratic stronghold so whoever won the primary elections won congressional election. The NAACP took his case to Supreme Court which outlawed white primaries.
- Morgan V. Virginia: Irene Morgan challenged segregation on interstate bus services because she was fined $100 for refusiong to give up her seat. The NAACP took her case to Supreme Court with the backing of Thurgood Marshall which outlawed segregation on interstae buses in 1946
- Sweatt V. Painter: NAACP challenged segregated Texan education system because Heman Sweatt was refused admission to the University of Texas Law school. The courts in Texas ordered the creationof a black texan law school. The NAACP rejected this ruling becuae the black school was inferiour (etc.) The NAACP took this case to Supreme Court which ordered the University of Texas to accept Sweatt, he registered 19 september 1950
- Brown V. Board 1954: Oliver Brown challenged the rights of younger students at Kansas state court becuase his daughter Linda Brown had to attend an all-black school when she would be better served attending the local white school nearby. The NAACP took the case to Supreme Court after three years of legal battles it outlawed segregation in American schools ruling Plessy V Feguson’s ‘separate but equal’ was a contradiction in terms
- Browder V. Gayle 1956: Aurelia Browder appealed against her conviction for refusing to give up her seat to a white person. The NAACP took the case to Supreme Court which outlawed segregation of buses 20 December 1956
Non-violent resistance:
- 1947 NAACP picketed New Orleans four biggest dpeartment stores because they refused to let lack customers try on hats
- 1951 picketed local black school becuae they planned to close in the cotton harvest so the black children work in the fields
- 1953 NAACP boycotted a newly built school in Lafayette becuase their facilities were obviously inferiour to those at the local white school
- 1955-56 Montgomery Bus Boycott: 1 december 1955 Rosa Parks, member of NAACP, arrested for refusing to give her seat up to a white man on a bus in Alabama. The NAACP launched a legal case and a campaign of direct action targeting local bus companies.
Who was Eisenhower? What Action did he take Towards Civil Rights and how Effective was it?
He was a Republican President 1953-1961
Ideology:
- he believed that de jure change would’nt produce de facto change
- didnt believe it was the government’s job to improve the conditions of black people ; their position would improve of its own accord
Government Action:
- he thought th Brown V. Board case was counter-productive because it infuriated white citizens creating opposition to black civil rights
- reluctant to become involved in Little Rock in 1957
- Civil Rights Act of 1957 which focussed on voting rights and proposed the establishment of a Commission on Civil Rights (bi-partisan committee to monitor voting rights of black citizens individuals found guilty of preventing blacks from registering were fined $1000 or six months in jail
- Civil Rights Act of 1960 extended the powers of the commission on Civil RIghts by requiring local authorities to keep reccords of voter registration for more accurate monitoring of voter registration//two acts increased proportion of black voters by 3
Appointments:
- regretted decision to make Earl Warren Chief Justice
Explain the Supreme Court’s Decision in the Brown V. Board case
- they argued segregation had a negative effect on black children
- Growth of the black middle-class who were more assertive more understanding of America’s legal system and more likely to challenge racial inequality so the Courts felt pressure to rule in their favour
- they believed the southern states lacked the economic resources to improve black schools because for over 60 years the southern states had failed to provide equal education so the only solution was integration
- they believed a racist education system didnt reflect the ideals america fought for in the cold war (freedom and justice)
- Chief Judge Frederick Moore Vinson dies in 1953 and was replaced by Earl Warren who was more sympathetic to civil rights issues and persuaded court members
Describe the Brown II case
In the first year the de jure change produced lttle de facto change. The NAACP asked the Supreme Court to establish a timetable for desegregating southern schools. The Supreme Court produced the Brown II ruling stating that desegregation of education should occur ‘with all deliberate speed’. The NAACP thought it was too vague to force change. Southern racists thought it was a further attack on segregation.
What were the Effects of the Brown V. Board Case?
Black American reaction:
- encouraged civil rights campaigners because they believed the Supreme Court would back other legal challenges to segregation; increase in local activism by groups such as NAACP and CORE
White Backlash:
- White Citizen’s Councils: set up by white middle class ;demanded continued segregation of schools; raised money to support privatisation of white state schools; campaigned for the election of local politicians oposed to desegregation; 1956 250,000 people had joined
- Activity of the KKK: murder of Emmett Till murderers not found guilty by all-white jury
- Sustained attack on NAACP: Alabama’s state court officially outlawed the NAACP banned its activities; Louisinana closure of 48 of 50 branches due to police persecution of NAACP
- Southern manifesto: Senator Harry F. Byrd called ‘massive resistance’ 1956 he led 101 southern congressmen who signed the southern manifesto that argued the Brown court case ruling was unconstitutional and asserted the continuation of separate but equal in southern stated and called on american to resist desegregation ‘by all lawful means’
- President Eisenhower dissaproval
Significance in bringing about change:
- 1957 750/6,300 southern school districts desegregated
- 3% of southern black students were educated in mixed schools
- 1968 58% of southern black school children remained in segregated school
- Brown argued de jure change was insignifficant without a time frame
What was the Significance of the Montgomery Bus Boycott?
Information:
- 1955-56
- local leader E.D Nixon called a meeting of Montgomery’s black leaders to oppose segregation
- Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) established by MLK to coordinate a boycott of local buses until segregation was abolished
- The campaign lasted over a year
- the MIA orgainised car pooling to sustain the boycott
Success and Significance:
- over 85% montgomery’s black community boycotted the buses
- the bus companies lost 65% of their revenue ( the majority of the company’s customers were black)
- Montgomery authorites realised the significance of the boycott and following a march they arrested 156 black protestors and king and fined him $500
Who was John F. Kennedy? What Action did he Take Towards Civil RIghts and how effective was it?
Democrat president 1961-63
Ideology:
- claimed he was sympathetic to civil rights for black americans in his election campaign
- promised a civil rights act to end segregation
Government Action:
- 1961 reaction to the Freedom rides to enforce desegregation of the interstate buses
- 1963 in reaction to BIrmingham campaign he fufilled promise for a civil rights act
- 1963 in reaction to March on Washington he pushed for the Civil Rights Bill
Federal Government:
- he created the Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity to ensure equal employment opportunities for everyone who worked for the federal government// few black emplyed by federal governemt measure had little impact
Appointments:
- appointed 5 blackjudges to the federal courts including NAACP’s chief counsel Thurgood Marshall
Who was the nation of Islam?
Background:
- founded in 1930 by Wallace Fard Muhammad
- lead by ELijah Muhammad from 1934
Ideology:
- Black Supremacism
- the first humans made by allah were black but an evil scientist nambed Yacub uses selective breeding to create white people who were morally weak and unable to do good and over centuries they enslaved all people who were not white
- Separitism- blacks and whites could not live together in peace, create a self-governing all-black state
- stay pure and work hard; self improvement; avoid temptation of drugs, sex, jazz, blues, gambling which weer other means of enslaving black people
Popularity:
- attractive to black men from northern cities trying to escape world of gambling prostitution and drugs because it encouraged them to find dignity in hard work and self-discipline (particularly black ex-convicts)
Who was Malcolm X? What Action did he Take Towards Civil Rights and how Effective was it?
Biography:
- father an activist
- mother mixed race resented her white side
- father murdered by the black legion
- three uncles murdered by whites
- mother sectioned and children in foster care
- good at school discouraged by teacher who said becoming a lawyer was ‘no realistic goal for a nigger’
- as an adult he had a few low paid jobs before commiting criminal activities and being sentenced 10 years
- in prison he was converted to thr nation of Islam and took new name X symbolising loss of african name
- released from prison 1952 gained influential role in NoI for oratory skills and appeal to working class men- membership of Detroit temple tripled; after documentary interviewing Malcolm X national membership doubled
- left NoI 1964 set up group Organisation of Afro-American Unity
- 1964 rethinks integration, speech on working within american system to elect black politicians; willingness cooperation with CORE and SNCC; Hajj made him believe black and whites could live together
- assasinated 1965 by memebers of NoI
Ideology:
- critical of the MLK and civil rights organisations because SCLC and NAACP believed in the the american dream which is a myth and therefore would never set black people free
- Violent methods/Self-defence: claimed MLK paid by governement to preach christianity and prevent black fighting for rights; non-violence made black look weak and couldnt bring substantial change; advocated gun ownership empowerment.
- Segregation: argued integration would introduce criminal under wolrd as a trap to enslave black people
- **Black nationalism: **rejected american nationalism his alternative political black nationalism and economic black nationalism and believed this was only possible in an all-black comunity
