Mao's China, 1949-76

Question 1

Explain the Nature of Government and How Did the CPC help Mao control China?

Answer 1

Three strands of the new system of government for the People’s Public of China:

entrenched itself as the governy party, all activity directed by CPC.

see document for political system

• permeated all levels of government and administation: the legal system, schools and PLA.
• Branches in all aspects of national life: factories, shops, schools, offices, neighbourhoods, PLA units, trade unions (All-China Fedration of Women, All-China Federation Democratic Youth)
• Roles at a local level: urban neighborhood committees, peoples’ mediation committees (public health, policing), street committees (1953 prostitution diminished by surveillance of brothels, pimps and prostitutes sent to ‘re-education centres’)
• danwei/work units: led by Party cadres; controlled housing allocation, grain, cooking oil, cloth, permits to travel, marry, enter army, universit,y change employment of employed citizens living in urban areas. (1951 citizens over 15 had to acquire residence permits and obtain permission to move to another area)

Question 2

What Mehtods Did the CPC use to Encourage Communism?

Answer 2

Repression and Terror

• Propaganda campaigns: targeted and shamed police, courts, imprisonment, executions
• Reform through labour: 1000 labour camps by 1960s, 27 million people executed, suicidal, worked to death in the camps
• Work Units and neighbouhood committees assisted the CPC to identify and punish counter-revolutionaries

Question 3

What were the four mass campaigns in the years 1950-52 through which Mao changed Chinese society?

Answer 3

The Resist America and Aid Korea Campaign 1950:

• foreigners (americans) enmies of PRC after korean war
• foreigners (missionaries) arrested and accussed of spying
• christian churches closed
• priests and nuns expelled from PRC
• institutions (businesses, universities) with western links under scrutiny
• police searches, confiscations (radios, weapons)
• mass rallies encourage suspiscion

The Supression of Counter-Revoltionaries Campaign October 1950-51:

• targeted those linked with GMD regime, bandits, memebrs of religious sects
• denunciations
• investigations
• punishment
• Shanghai 40,000 people persecuted
• Guangdong 52,620 ‘bandits’ , 89,701 criminals , 28,332 public executions

The Three-Antis Campaign 1951:

• targeted corruption (bribery, influence), waste, obstructionist bureacracy (managers, state official, party members), independant thought
• mass meetings
• denunciations
• investigations by party committees
• humiliation
• , subjected to self-criticism
• rectification of thought or deed

The Five-Antis Campaign 1952:

• targeted bourgeoisie (bribery, tax evasion, theft of state property, cheating on government contracts, economic espionage)
• workers organisations investigated employers business affairs
• group criticism sessions
• public denunciations
• 3000 mass meetings in Feb in Shanghai
• fines
• confiscations of property
• labour camps
• 2-3 million suicides (as result)

Question 4

How did the Purges of the CPC Consolidate Mao’s Power in 1950s?

Answer 4

• Gao Gang was head of Central Planning Commission which was responsible for directing the Five Year Plan
• there was debate over the pace of change
• Gao took the side of Mao and criticised Zhou Enlai and Liu Shaoqi for their moderatism
• with the support of Rao Shushi, Gao attempted to usurp the position of Zhou Enlai and become vice-chairman of the CPC thinking he had the backing of Mao
• Deng Xiaoping informed Mao of this
• Mao used decemebr 1953 meeting to accuse gao and rao of attempting to build independant kingdoms and underground activities
• Gao committed suicide
• Rao dies in prison 20 years later

Question 5

How Did Early Economic Reform Consolidate Mao’s Power?

Answer 5

Stabilising Economy

• Inflation controlled by cuts on public expenditure, raised taxes and change of currency (the renminbi)
• demobilisation of PLA it accounted for 41% of total state budget in 1950, 5mil to 3.5mil men by 1953

The First Five Year Plan 1953-7 (drew up 1952)

action towards self sufficiency

• foreign owned businesses were nationalised
• foreign trade minimalised
• balance of payments (import and exports) kept in credit
• industrial development- increasing the capacity of heavy industry iron and steel production, energy, transport, machinery, chemicals
• patriotic savings campaigns-citizens exorted to save money in state banks which helped finance industrial investment
• reduction of consumer goods limited citizens spending so there were higher savings
• government procurement quotas- governemnt took a proportion of food produced by peasants at a low price to feed the growing urban population while keeping their wages low

results

• officials inflated production figures reported to central government
• successful all target were reached by 1956 and exceeded at end of five year period
• indstrial worker illiterate didnt have the skills and ability to read instruction in order to install and maintain equipent, ruined
• quantity rather than quality
• state planners ignorant to basic procedures causeing bureaucratic delays and bottlenecks in production and distribution process
• competition for resources
• workers greater job security and income
• loss of freedom stricter regulations on movement between jobs
• improvded living standards for industrial worker but not by international comparison (according to study in shanghai 1956)
• internal migration- population in urban areas 57mil-100mil 1949-1957
• industrialisation fincanced by Soviet Union loans with interest rates repaid by food exports
• 1955 mao abolished private entreprises/ste takeover

Question 6

How Did Mao the Korean War Consolidate Mao’s power?

Answer 6

cold war 1950-53

Positive Outcomes:

• Strong alliance with north korea repayment after 100,000 noth koreans fought with communist china in 1946-47
• Impressive military skill impressed stalin so he would be more compliant in provding the chinese with soviet technology (stalin “the chinese comrades are so good”) and impressed the public of china who had more confidence in Mao’s leadership and power after having defeated the world’s greatest powers US ( mao proved his claim USA is just a “paper tiger”)- example of military skill chinese forces concealed in yalu river then inflicted a defeat on the ROK 25 october then withdrew into the the north to provoke a US pursuit and quickly resumed their offensive to inflict a defeat on USA and South Koreans
• Buffer state recaptured Seoul which preserves a friendly northern korea on the border of manchuria so as to avoid a repeat of the Japanese war
• wartime morale encouraged national unity and idolisation of the PLA who represented communist ideals
• International and domestic legitimisation of regime by standing up after years of submission to foreign dominance
• **Chinese empowerment **singnificantly the communist soldiers were asian not russian so ‘beijing, not moscow, became the beacon of the anti-imperialist cause’

Negative Outcomes:

• China pawn in Soviet Union cold war agenda.(stalin may have provoked kim II invasion to lure US into conflict with china) was reluctant to intervene, china wasn’t involved in planning war but was ‘duped’ by stalin and kept in the dark so as to encourage the war to weaken USA
• 400000-800000 casualties
• Repayments to russia for loaned material
• Confrontation with USA lowered chance of recovering Taiwan and gaining a seat in the security council
• **Rivalry with USSR **singnificantly the communist soldiers were asian not russian so ‘beijing, not moscow, became the beacon of the anti-imperialist cause’

Question 7

What role did the PLA play in Mao’s Consolidation of Power?

Answer 7

• PLA received 800,000 conscripts a year, millions of chinese men passed throught three years of military training emerging indoctrinated in the ideoloogy of the communist party
• Propaganda value- Soldier-heroes of the battles with japan, guomindang and korea (films, plays) became role models who epitomised revolutionary virtues cultivated by mao: dicsipline, self-sacrifice, edurance, perserverance which help to instil these virtues in chinese population
• pass comunist ideology on to peasants in the countryside
• worked on public work projects rebuilding bridges, roads, and railways damaged in the wars e.g. the first field army became the production and construction army to untap mineral resources and agricultural land

Question 8

How did the Hundred Flowers Campaign Consolidate Mao’s Power?

Answer 8

Background:

• intellectuals were originally treated with suspicion by the communist pary (education in foreign universities or chinese universites with western foundations, bourgeoise class payed for education, tradition of academic freedom and free expression regarded as bourgeois indulgence or even counter-revolutionary thought)
• the cooperation with educated peoples was essential to economic growth
• many intellectuals subjected to courses at revolutionary colleges and self-criticism sessions

Potential Motivations:

• devious trap
• reult of the conflicts in the communist party
• attmpy to bridge the gap between party and people
• misjudgement of the bitterness of criticism and party’s ability to handle it

Launch of the campaign

mao’s considerations:

• security of comunist party after campaigns,
• achievement of the first five year plan,
• speed up economic change with educated specialists,
• greatest danger facing cpc was bureaucraticism which critcism could rectify

opposition:

• criticism from non party officials instigate wave of criticism to threaten regime
• same year krushchev had cricised stalin which threantened to undermine marxist-leninist belief
• same year anit-comunist revolt in hungary

in 1956 mao didnt have full support of politburo couldnt start campaign, he sought allies in other sectors of the party with public speech and journey through eastern china. 1957 politburo sanctioned the campaign.

intellectuals’ criticism:

• development of buraecratic class
• abuses of human rights in early campaigns
• followoing Soviet union model
• stultifying intellectual life
• rallies, riots, attakcs on CPC cadres

july anti-rightist campaign:

• 500,000 intellectuals branded ‘rightists’ persecuted
• labour camps
• countryside re-education
• suicides
• (few) public shootings

result:

independance of thought systematically crushed; intellectuals in china will never trust CPC again

Question 9

How did Land Confiscations encourae Comunist Economic Policies 1950?

Answer 9

• land was proportionately redistributed from the landlords to the poorer peasants and landless labourers
• teams of 30-40 party cadres worked with local peasant ascociations in the countryside
• local peasants encouraged to idetify landlords
• landlords subjected to humiliation and violence and many sentenced to death
• CPC incited class conflict to cement peasants affiliation with the communist revolution

Question 10

How Did Collectivisation enforce Comunist Economic Policies 1951-57?

Answer 10

• marxist theory collective ownership of the means of production

1951 mutual aid teams:

• peasants encouraged to form groupings of 10 households that pooled labour, equipment and animals
• gradually peasants couldnt obtain equipment without joining
• no compulsion
• mao cautious so as not to cause resistance and undermine peasant support of communist revolution
• observed a spontaneous tendency towards capitalism

1952-3 Agricultural Producers’ Cooperatives (APCs):

• groupings of 30-50 households pooled “ and land (peasants retained their private ownership profit at the end of the year split on basis of land-share and labour-share, benefiting the wealthier peasants)
• abolished traditional method of strip farming introduce modern method (more land for cultivation, reduced traveling time between strips, peasants could share cost of purchasing new machinery),

1953 campaign against rash advance:

• fast pace had led local officals to force peasants in poorly prepared cooperatives which ran into debt in order to meet targets

1954 campaign against rash retrteat:

• spontaneous capitalism occurred wealthier peasants begun to hire labour, lend money, buy and sell land
• mao increased pace
• resistance amongst wealthier peasants
• poor harvest
• governemnt requisition of grain for cities caused food riots- 1957-58 debate Chen yun and Zhou Enlai favoured offering peasant material incentives (higher prices, access to consumer goods) Mao and Deng preferred radical propaganda campaign to encourage hard work

January 1955 Stop, Contract, Develop campaign:

• no further expansion of APCs for 18 months

Summer of 1955:

• Mao pushed for rapid collectivisation
• large, high stage APCs 200-300 households
• peasant families still owned land allowed to keep 5% of APC land as private plots
• distribution of profts land-share reduced labour-share increased (no longer benefitted wealthier peasant, th withholding of State loans by the government banks put pressure on them to join APCs)

Outcomes:

• july 1955 17 million housholds belonged to APCs
• january 1956 74 million households (63% peasant population)
• 1956 3% households farmed privately
• collectivisation achieved 15 years before schedule
• CPC control in countryside increased
• debate in CPC about pace of change; Mao believed, in opposition to Liu and Deng, material conditions decisive factor in dictating pace of change
• peasants better fed//hardship
• agricultural production grew by 3.8% 1953-57 agricultural production needed to increase so that industrial cities could expand (there was suplus food for urban population)

Question 11

How Did The Great Leap Forward Enforce Communist Economic Policies? How did it fail?

Answer 11

=2nd Five year plan launched in 1958

Aims:

• Mao’s vision that comunist china could overtake britain and the USA to become the world’s leading economic power
• mass mobilisation of the chinese people
• decentralisation of bureaucratic control to the local oarty cadres whose task were to mobilise the energies and experience of chinese people
• autumn 1957 mao stated china would produce 40 mil tonnes of steel in 70s (double the figure approved by the Central Committee)
• autumn 1958 stated china would have and output of 100 mil tonnes in 1963 and 700 mil tonnes in 70s
• december 1958 targets for grain production 430 mil tonnes

How to achieve aims:

• APCs grouped into larger units 20,000 people called peoples communes which took over the role of local government and military units, the platoons to which they belong were the basic work units, emphasis on rural communes to push mao’s ideology that the peasantry will lead the communist future.
• **abolish private family life **private land was taken over by communes, coomunal organisation of work, communal kindagartens, meals served in communal halls, family ties dismissed as bourgeois emotional attachments
• Backyard furnaces established to produce more iron and steel in institutions with no experience of iron smelting
• large-scale engineering products mobilising tens of thousand of labourers to build without machinery
• mao prioritised poltical objective over economic ones technical expertise was distrusted and regard as an obstruction development

Failure:

• 1959 floods in south drought in north
• 1957 and 1960 break with USSR and anti-rightest campaign** **resulted in lack of crucial experts such as staticians and ensured noone would dare question mao’s direction
• waste of resources time spent smelting meant ripened grain left to rot, smelting of farm instruments meant the was too few equipments for workers, land left uncultivated for view that there would need to be granary space to store crop, contnual export of millions of tonnes of grain to USSR to pay for technical assistance
• **Backyard furnaces **90 mil people involved, 1958 8 mil tonnes of acceptable quality steel produced, 1959 backyard furnace experiment abandonned
• Exaggerated production figures see notes to add detail, 1959 government claimed a harvest 375 mil tonees was produced/ 200 mil tonnes actually produced, target for 1959 430 mil tonnes/270 mil government claimed to have produced/143 mil tonnes actually produced- 1959 food shortages reached cities
• dismissal of peasant’s practical experience in exchange for 8 point agricultural constitution (soviet scientist) instruction to plant seeds closer together and plough deeper bad effects
• resulting famine killed estimated 20 million, emergence of cannibalism
• increased crime and corruption stamped out in the early campaigns
• labour camps expanded to accommodate peasants found hoarding food for their families
• imports 1961 china received 6 million tonnes of wheat imported from canada and indirectly from the USA in complete counter to the self-reliance the great leap forward hoped to achieve

Question 12

What Happened in the Purge of Peng Dehuai in Mao’s Power struggle during the ealry 1960s?

Answer 12

• 1959 Peng Dehuai minister of defence visited Henan where he learnt first hand of the food shortages, military transport bringing food in, atmosphere of rebellion against communnal life, critcism of the waste resulted from party policies
• July 1959 Peng Dehuai sent Mao a letter detailing specific failings arguing his policity was correct in theory and flawed in practise
• Mao published private letter to delegates
• Mao charged Peng with deviating from the party’s general line and denounced him a ‘rightist’
• Mao convened a meeting of the Politburo to decide Peng’s fate
• Peng’s critcism of GLF echoed that of USSR at a time of worsening relationships between soviet and china
• Peng was accused of aiding china’s enemies and leading a right-opurtunist anti-party clique
• Peng dismissed as defence minister (replaced by Lin Biao) under virtual house arrest, retained place on politburo never attended another meeting

Question 13

Summarise Mao’s Power Struggle in the early 1960s?

Answer 13

• Mao retired to the second front by stepping down as Chairman of PRC ( still retained roles as chairman of CPC and Military affairs comission) to relieve himself of day-to-day duties, concentrate on ideological matters
• Revision of his policies in the third year plan=loss of power
• Mao no longer enjoyed an aura of infalliability having had to admit to failings of GLF in a confernce
• ‘Oppose revisionism abroad prevent revisionism at home’ Mao’s slogan to rally party against policies of Liu and Deng provoking Liu and Deng’s pratical retreat e.g. rural capitalism condemend private plots allowed
• Mao’s socialist Education Movement
  *

Question 14

How Were Debates about Economic Policy a Factor in The Loss of Mao’s Power?

Answer 14

1. Chen Yun took a pragmatic aproach to the Third Year Plan which was supported by Liu, Bo Yibo, and Deng (“it doesnt matter if the cat is black or white so long as it catches the mouse it is a good cat”= policy vallued by its results rather than ideology) which Mao regarded as a retreat into revisionism
2. January 1962 Mao called a 7000-cadre conference to rally support against revisionism
3. Liu Shauoqi made crucual speech acknowledging the Party centre’s (liu, mao and politburo) role in the shortcomings and errors of the GLF
4. Mao sensed the general support for Liu’s speech and later in the conference made a form of self-criticism accepting responsibility as Chairman (no apology or admission of personal mistakes) therefore Mao’s warnings about revisionism not heeded by delegates
5. Mao withdrew from public life

Question 15

Describe The Revisions of Mao Policies in the Third Five Year Plan of the early 1960s?

Answer 15

• 1961 Communist party leadership rethought flawed economic policies
• April 1961 communal canteens abandonned
• June 1961 peasants were allowed to cultivate their own private plots
• Introduction of financial incentives
• Rural fairs and markets
• Communes broken into smaller units based on smaller villages
• 25 million peasants moved to towns for work
• food returned home villages
• 25,000 inefficent enterprises closed
• Coal and steel targets reduced to realistic levels
• Industrial workers offered financial incentives- replaced the moral exhortations and appeals to revolutionary fervour
• Political Liberalisation- Zhou Enlai and Liu Shauqi rehabilitated rigthists purged in 1957-8
• Central bureaucratic control replaced decentralisation of planning to the communes
• Validification of expert knowledge, mass mobilisation not effective economy in the hands of technical experts
• Liuo faovureed conciliatoy stance towards USA and USSR avoid confrontation during economic crisis,

Question 16

How successful was The Third Five Year Plan?

Answer 16

Results

• 1965 agricultural production returned to levels attained in 1957
• ouput of light industry increased by 17%
• oil production increased by 1000%
• natural gas increased by 4000%
• china free from dependance on USSR energy supplies
  *

Question 17

What was the Socialist Education Movement?

Answer 17

• launcehed 196
• preached virtues of the collective economy superiority of socialism
• stamp out corruption of party cadres mao intended mass mobilisation of struggle meetings fains officials, liu directed centrally controlled aproach emphasis on discipline not ideological correctness
• work teams of 100,000 cadres sent to rural areas to investigate local leadership and those guilty of economic crimes
• thousands executed, many more committed suicide

Question 18

How Did the Rise of the PLA Help to Support Mao in early 1960s?

Answer 18

• PLA leadership Lin Biao a loyal ally of Mao
• Lin increased number of party memebers in PLA
• increased the indoctrination of recruits in the army
• Published compilation of selected quotes from Mao- ‘the little red book issued to all recruits as basis of political eduction encouraged thew cult of mao from within the armed forces
• 1965 abolishment of ranks within PLA to be an advanced revolutionary egalitarian organisation, model for comunist society
• extension of PLA influence in internal security forces, schools factories, cultural life

Question 19

When was the Cultural Revolution?

Answer 19

1966-76

Question 20

How Did the Rise of Jiang Qing and Radical Intellectuals Help to Support Mao in 1960s?

Answer 20

her attack on intellectals due to the return of of traditional themes in writings and art was also an attack on party leadership for allowing ‘revisionist’ writings. She had allies among the Shanhai party leaders who were more radical than beijing leadership, Mao sought support in these loyal leaders in the provinces because central leadership was outside his control. role during cultural revolution was to mobilise radical intellectuals from shanghai in an assault on CPC’s cultural policies.

Question 21

`What Were the Aims and Origins of the Cultural Revolution?

Answer 21

1. a struggle to remould chinese culture- all modes of thought and expression, mao thought guiding principle
2. a power struggle within the CPC-class struggle must be fought from within communist party to resist bureacratism
3. a rectification campaign

Question 22

How did Mao Struggle to Remould Chinese Culture by attacking Wu Han’s Play during the Cultural Revolution?

Answer 22

Attack on Play Hai Rui Dismissed from Office:

• written by intellectual Wu Han
• story line: official from ming synasty dismissed after criticising emperor for wasting resources on extravagance while normal people starved
• story line paralled the purge of Peng Dehuai
• article written by Yao wenyuan (jiang ally) published in Shanghai attacking play and author
• the atack was also directed at Peng Zhen, Wu Han’s boss, the politburo memeber responsable for culture
• indirectly attacked Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping, allies of Peng
• party attmepted to diffuse the crisis Pen set up a Cultural Revolution Group to investigate issues raised by affair treating issue as academic rather than political

Question 23

What did Lin Biao say on the Cultural Revolution in 1966? And what was meant by this?

Answer 23

‘If the proletariat does not occupy the positions in literature and art, the bourgeoisie certainly will’

struggle over culture was a class struggle and therefore couldnt be treated as just an academic argument, th emphasise his support Lin appointed jian to coordinate PLA cultural policies

Question 24

What Did Jiang Qing say on the Cultural Revolution and what was meant by this?

Answer 24

art was not someting to be valued for its own sake nor did it exist in a vacuum.

All art reflects the society from which it springs and serves a political purpose. therefore bougeois art forms have no place in a socialist society, allowing these to be published undermines the people’s belief in socialism, necessary to replace bourgeois and foreign influences with proletarian culture.

Question 25

What was the denouncement of the Four Olds in Mao’s Struggle to Remould Chinese Society during the Cultural Revolution?

Answer 25

1. old culture
2. old ideas
3. old customs
4. old habits

eradification of traditional culture e.g. replacement of traditional operas with revolutionary operas, banning of western music ettc.

Question 26

What happened in the Purges of Liu Sahoqi and Deng Xiaoping during the Cultural Revolution?

Answer 26

• march 1966 mao with support of politburo (Lin Biao, Kang Shen, Chen Boda) removed Peng Zhen from office while Liu on foreign tour
• may 1966 mao took control of cultural revolution group appointment of allies to key positions
• may 1966 Kang Sheng’s organised large character wall poster criticising the university administration made by a professor
• mao endorsed poster broadcasted its message on radio- spreading movement to other campuses
• summer 1966 students attacked teachers and university administrators
• Deng and Liu tried to control situation, confirming mao’s frustration with them- they sent work teams to campuses to direct students’ criticism at individuals, away from general party
• july 1966 mao swam Yangzi river- symbolic act because of strong currents maintained physical strength in age, extensive newspaper coverage, return to capital bejing central role in revolution
• august central committee meeting mao openly criticial of Liu he was forced to make self-criticism about work teams
• mao accussed Liu of exercising dictatorship in Beijing and resisting cultural revolution cntral committee aproved liu’s demotion from seccond to eigth place
• Lin biao established as chosen successor
• october party conference Liu and Deng subjected to criticism, forced self-criticisms
• retained positions careers ruined
• Deng survived due to support from Zhou Enlai
• during cultural revolution october 1966 central committee work conference mao lin CRG accused Liu Shaoq and Deng Xiaoping of Resisting CR forced self-criticisms
• wall posters denounced them
• In the backlash against the February adverse current in 1967 Liu Saoqi and Deng Xiaoping were placed under house arrest despite their isolation and lack of political influence
• october 1968 central committee meeting expelled from party and government as a convenient scapegoat

Question 27

What Happened During the Rectification Campaign in The Cultural Revolution?

Answer 27

• people’s criticism of party from outside of party’s control
• 8 august 1966 central committee adopted cultural revolution as official party policy issued document ‘sixteen points in the cultural revolution’
• august 1966 red guard violence directed at not just teachers and cadres within educational institutions but party cadres at national, provincial and local levels.
• august 1966 schools and universities closed
• august 1966 mao’ rallying cry “ bombard the headquarters” met by enthusiastic response from china’s youth
• red gurards attacked intellectuals, teachers, members of non-comunist parties, five black categories, historic sites and artefacts, religious buildings

correction stations (shaved heads) targeted those of western fashion influence

• confiscation of bourgeois items from homes (books, paintings etc.)

Question 28

Why were the youths so recptive to mao during th rectification campaign in the Cultural Revolution?

Answer 28

1. maoist cult of personality emphasised loyalty to mao over loyalty to communist party
2. youths resented lack of job oppurtunities for those outside party
3. youths who had been rellocated to countryside during GLF resented party

Question 29

What Happened during the Power Struggles within the CPC in The Cultural Revolution?

Answer 29

• autumn 1966 random attacks by red guards turned into systematic violent attacks on party officials because mao and allies were angered that they resisted the CR while appearing to support it
• intensified assault on CPC by purges of Liu Shaouqi and Deng Xiaoping and 20 member of central committee of beijing district subjected to verbal abuse in struggle meetings
• local governments overthrown by red guard units who asserted new politial authority

Question 30

What Happened in the formation of Red Guard Units?

Answer 30

• party officials offerd their subordinates as victims to red gurads or formated red guard units made up of workers and students whose parents were party cadres
• split in the red guards- units composed of students from bourgeois non-party backgrounds more radical more inclined to attack party officials
• november 1966 militant factory formed red guard units
• formation of Workers Revolutionary General Headquarters (‘revelotionary rebels’) with blessing of CRG to coordinate radical groups in the city
• Shanghai cpc leadership tried to obstruct WRGH
• mao declared workers had right to establish mass organisations
• shanghai party bosses forced to make public self-criticisms
• establishment of the shanghai Red Detachment supported by party leadership (‘proletarian revolutionaries’ ) conservative mass organisaion opposed to the efforts of revolutionary rebels to overthrow existing power structure
• the factional rivalry degenerated into violence
• december 1966 street battles between red guard factions in Shanhai

Question 31

Explain the ‘January Storm’

Answer 31

‘January storm’:

• strikes paralysed ports and rail networks
• 3 january 1967 rebels seized cotnrol of news papers
• collapse of authority of party leadership
• local government leaders purged
• mao sent Zhang Chunqiao and Yao Wenyuan to abolish party committee and establish new authority
• 5 january 1967 WRGH announced overthrow of party committee city to be run by themselves
• with support of PLA WRGH took control of factories docks newspapers businesses in shanghai
• this spread to other provinces including Beijing
• Mao and allies had no plan to guide Zhang and Yao in establishing new polictical authority
• Zhang established Shanghai people’s commune- officials woud be chosen in free elections subject to democratic acountability (no communist party monopoly) in spirit of Mao’s principle ‘trust the masses’
• Mao made deicision to defend the CPC’s vanguard role and declared that there must be a party, rejected shanghai people commune and discouraged other rebel groups to follow
• 23 january 1967 shanghai people’s commune replaced by shanghai revolutionary committee- consisting of revolutionary rebels, party officials and PLA representatives, became prototype for other rebel groups to follow

Question 32

What Was The Role of The PLA During The Cultural Revolution? Explain the ‘February Crackdown’

Answer 32

• military commanders believe discipline maintained if officers not subjected to struggle meetings (unlike civilian political counterparts)
• CRG believe no sector of chinese society should be imune to rectification campaign
• mao didnt reveal views on subject he prohibited attack on PLA but didnt condemn radical military cadets for staging struggle meetings
• with absence of leadership some senior military commanders acted on own intiative against radical groups

Question 33

What Happened in February 1967?

Answer 33

February Crackdown

regional military commanders in Sichuan and Wuhan used armed force to supress radical groupps and arrest leaders

February Adverse Current

political backlash against the excesses of the red guards and their neglect of the 16 points by leading politburo members. Politburo directive.

Radicalisation

Mao perceived politburo criticism as challenge to his authority, confirmed his decision to launch attack on party.

Question 34

What Did The Politburo Directive Prescribe in February 1967?

Answer 34

• with support of mao
• imposed limits on use of force
• restricted red guards to just their native towns (stop travelling)
• directed red guards to withdraw from party and governement departments responsible for defence, economic policy, foreign affairs, public security, finance, banking and propaganda
• PLA ordered to restore order

Question 35

What Happened During the Backlash Against The February Adverse Current?

Answer 35

• Politburo ceased to function
• Politburo’s power exercised by CRG
• bold sustained criticism of veteran party cadres
• PLA officers who attempted to crack down on red guards denounced as ‘ultra-rigthists’ and court matialled
• PLA ordered to refrain from using armed force against red guards
• Factional rivalry increased pitched battles

Question 36

Give Examples of the Key Events during the Backlash against the February Adverse Current?

Answer 36

• July 1967 in Wuhan conflict between a ‘conservative’ workers’ group, Million Heroes, and WRGH (more radical)
• 600 people killed
• Mao, Jiang, Lin sided with radicals
• the regional military commander purged for imprisoning radical leaders
• Mao and Jiang advocated arming radical groups in struggle against capital-roaders in the PLA (PLA members who supported conservative mass organisations)
• armed seizures from transports of weapons to vietnam
• radical groups seized control of foreign ministry attacks on British legations (and other legations)

Question 37

What Significant Changes to the Cultural Revolution Happened During August- July 1968?

Answer 37

Mao’s Change of Heart: Crackdown on Red Guards

1. withdrew radical policies so as not to undermine the PLA as disciplined and effective fighting force
2. 11 august issued a statement- stated dragging out capitalist roders in army was unstrategic
3. Purge of four most radical members of CRG
4. september Mao approved order to forbid red guards seizing weapons and PLA authorised to open fire on red guards in self-defence (PLA intervention gave it enhanced pretige and a higher political profile)
5. 10 million red guards under suspicion, 3 million detained for questioning uner pre-text of punishing May 16 Group
6. spring 1968 campaign for cleansing of class ranks- arrest of 1.8 million red guards, tens of thousands of victims beaten, suicidal, sent to labour camps
7. spring 1968 new public security regulation made it a counter-revolutionary crime to criticise mao lin and radical leaders
8. summer 1968 PLA separated warring factions in Shaanxi and Guangxi and military control commissions established to resistance to military rule (Guangxi indiscriminate slaughter, cannibalism when traitors killed )
9. july 1968 mao argued cultural revolution should be lead by workers not students brought about final supression of red guards by sending 30,000 workers and PLA troops to Qinghua university to disarm student red guards
10. Rustication Campaign 1968-1970 5 million youths from cities sent for work-study programmes in countryside among peasants, several million party-cadres and intellectual sent to May 7th cadre schools

Question 38

What Significant Turning Point Happened after the August Crackdown?

Answer 38

the focus of the CR shifted from the destruction of the old order to the creation of a new system

Question 39

Describe the Creation of New Political Structures During August 1967 to September 1968

Answer 39

• Mao ordered rival red guard and workers’ factions to unite to form ‘grand alliances’
• establishment of 29 new provincial revolutionary committees (achieved quickly in Beijing and Shanghai delays in other parts of china due to continued factional rivalries)
• october 1968 Central committee meeting 2/3 of Central committee had been purged and only 40 members had full voting rights after CR this was not enough to make binding decisions so Mao unconstitutionally added 10 members to committee

Question 40

When Was The End of The Cultural Revolution Officially Declared?

Answer 40

Full Party Congress in April 1969

then new party constitution adopted by congress stressed the guiding role of Mao;s thought. Mao’s position as red emperor secured.

Question 41

What Was The Impact of The Cultural Revolution?

Answer 41

Casualties

• Guangxi 67,000 deaths 1966-76
• estimated total death toll 500,000 at the least

Cities

• eradification of bourgeois and foreign influence performed in high schools, universities, factories, offices and shops
• 1967 foof supplies dangerously low level as factional fighting and strikes cut off cities from other parts of china
• pressure to conform thought appearance and lifestyle intensified because of arbitary decisions and indidcriminate attacks by red guards against four olds e.g. random attacks for incorrect dress
• punishment for criticism of CR was beatings, humiliation and imprisonment
• autumn 1966 beijing 1/4- 1/3 of private homes ransacked by red guards e.g. Nien Cheng

Rural Areas

• minimal impact little red guard activity
• rural areas near cities peasant more likely to be involved in revolutionary action e.g. 2/3 of places that reported ‘rural disorder’ were within 50km of large cities, oarticularly countryside around Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou
• 1966 emphasis on health policy shifted to countryside
• 1968 rural cooperative medical scheme
• barefoot doctors introduced to provide basic haelth care ( however lacked training)

Economy

• CR had minimal effect in both duration and extent
• 1967 total industrial output fell 13% due to disruption at workplace e.g. ritual to bow to mao’s portrait each morning and evening and ask for instruction and report achievements
• ouput fell further in 1968 and recovered to levels achieved in 1966 in 1969
• 1971 resumed steady growth
• 1966 and 1977 grain production declined
• fell further in 1968, weather was a major factor
• 1969 grain production resumed levels in 1966 and continued to rise in subsequent years

Education and Youth:

• schools and universities targeted in the struggle against incorrect thought
• teachers victimised because they were primarily responsible for instilling ideas
• 1965 mao remarked ‘the more books you read the more stupid you become’ to justify educational policies of CR
• 18 june 1966 at beijing university teachers dragged out of classes and beaten spread to other cities
• summer 1966 universities closed and didnt reopen for two years
• autumn 1966 to spring 1967 middle schools were closed
• rustication campaign education and work in the countryside, learning through hard labour essential to mao’s CR
• lack of education meant many were unable to graduate and their careers were blighted leading to cynicism and disillusionment
• experience in countryside dented revolutionary idealism of red guard and the propaganda vision of comunist utopia in china because they were exposed to rural poverty, backwardness and lack of proper education and health care
• after CR less exams and less content in courses emphasis on practical work and vocational training and manual labour compulsort for two months of year within courses.

Cultural and Intellectual Life

• 1966-76 only arts that served propaganda purposes and fed personality cult of mao were permitted
• intellectuals (scholars, teachers, writers) persecuted and killed
• Jiang Qing supreme authority over cultural life operas and ballets approved by her
• theatres and cinemas only revolutionary play and films
• banned selling of traditional and foreign literature and possession evidence of counter-revolutionary crime
• libraries and museums closed
• book burnings symbolic
• those who had evidence of Jiang’s former life as an actress in Shanghi were persecuted
• atack on ‘confucian principles’ symbolically represented CRG ordered red guards to desecrate museum dedicated to confucius in shandong which symbolised traditional culture
• a counter-revolutionary crime to show respect foe elders and one’s parents
• didn’t succeed in remoulding society customs attitudes continued

The Communist Party

• 70% provincial and regional officials were purged
• 60% high ranking official lost their jobs
• 9 of 23 Politburo members 1966 survived the purge
• at local level 20% party bureacracy labelled reivisonist ot capitalists roaders
• 3 million party cadres sent to may 7th cadre schools
• many survived CR and were rehabilitated
• large number tortured to death died of exhaustion and malnutrition, suicidal
• restructuring of CPC : arrangements for election of new central committee and convening of a national Party congress recruitment of new members absorobing many former red guards into CPC if they camfe from right worker-peasant-soldier background
• new party constitution: 2/3 of delegates were members of PLA 45% of central committee were members of PLA, party members less well educated and experienced, slavish adherents of mao thought compliant to mao, constitution more open to manipulation, role of politburo diminshed and replaced with smaller standing committee (mao zedong, lin biao, zhou enlai, chen boda, kang sheng)
• mao thought enshrined as the guiding principle of CPC
• weakened political institutions and fragmented political leadership liable to insecurities

Question 42

What Were the Three Main Power Groupings following the Cultural Revolution? What Were the Roles of these Groupings?

Answer 42

1.Lin Biao and the PLA

• intervention in CR gained prestige and political profile
• ninth party congress dominated by PLA representatives
• revolutionary committeess at local levels dominated by PLA despite mao’s efforts to establish new party branches and parry committees (a guiding principle of maoism was that party should control military)
• 1969 armed clashes with soviet troops placed PLA in the role of defenders of the nation (again)
• Lin Biao commander-in-chief of PLA defence minister of government and member of Politburo’s standing committee- very powerful by winning the trust of mao through his passivity and compliancy
• Lin Biao key figure in promoting cult of chairman mao- wrote introduction to little red book at ninth party congress he took the lead in praising mao

2.Jiang Qing and Shanghai radicals

• able to make powerful alliances and extend her own influence
• associates were Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan, Wang Hongwen and forged a close alliance with Lin Biao and security chief Kang Sheng
• red guards provided Jiang and allies with their mass base which enabled them pursue their radical political and cultural agenda
• 1969 Jiang, Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan elevated to CPC’s politburo as result of CR
• end of CR reduced Jiang’s (and allies) role and power when red guards were disarmed and dispersed
• 1969 mao moved away from ultra-left policies of Jiang and radicals
• november 1970 mao gave group control of the central committee organisations and propaganda group
• power struggle between Jiang and Lin for mao’s favour put strain on their relationship
• Jiang also tried to undermine Zhou Enlai, state premier

3.Zhou Enlai and the Bureaucracy

• state premier in charge of enormous state bureaucracy
• priorities were political stability and continuing economic growth
• pragmatic (opposing ultra-left agenda pursued by mao and jiang)- strong in quite cautious negotiation and diplomacy believed in how well plocies worked instead of the ideological purity of the policy
• zhou and jiang competed for mao’s favour through issues on education and economy

Question 43

What Happened During the Purge of Lin Biao from 1969 to 1971?

Answer 43

• Mao became suspicious of Lin becuase he feared a Chinese Bonaparte
• march 1970 relationship deteriorated when the Party’s Central Commiittee met and Mao proposed the abolition of the post of state chairman and Lin made efforts to persuade mao to keep post
• this was uncharacteristic of lin (usually passive and compliant)
• mau suspected lin of harbouring ambitions to become state chairman to elevate his position in CPC hierarchy and reduce mao to a ceremonial role
• Mao denounced Chen Boda for factionalism and subjected him to self-criticism when he supported Lin and launched an attack on Zhang Chunqiao for opposing Lin
• 1970-71 mao ‘throwing stones, mixing in sand, and digging up the cornerstone’ entailed forcing lin’s allies to make sef-criticisms, adding mao loyalists to undermine lin’s control of military affairs commission, reorganising Beijing military region allies of lin among military commanders transferred to other areas so troops in the capital would be loyal to mao (not lin) in the event of confrontation
• february 1971 lin decided to fight back, Lin Liguo (his son) prepared plans for potential coup- assasination of Zhang Chunqiao and Mao
• August-September 1971 Mao toured provinces to enlist support from provincial party and PLA leaders taking precautions to conceal his location
• Lin resorted to alternative plan to fly to south and build rival regime in Guangdong
• Zhou enlai heard of plan he didnt stop the plane from leaving but prevented it from being refuelled
• Lin and son headed for USSR instead of South but crashed in outer mongolia because of lack of fuel killing all 8 people on board
• following death lin denounced as renegade and traitor and soviet agent

Question 44

What Was The Impact of the Fall of Lin Biao?

Answer 44

1. purge of senior military commanders who were allies of Lin and his son’s allies
2. Mao’s health deteriorated, bed-ridden never fully recovered
3. Mao’s reputation damaged by revelation that his chsen successor had plotted his assasination, questioning of Mao’s judgement
4. Undermined chinese faith in mao and the system his image as ‘infalliable’ was shattered and general cycnicism prevailed
5. Pragmatism: CPC official response accused lin of being a ‘sham marxist political swindler’ ‘cunningt incited ultra-left trends of thought’ zhou and moderates viewed in goog light and coded criticism of Jiang and her allies. Zhou used this to work towards four modernisations and american president invited to china for talks on reopening diplomatic and trade relations (contact with wester capitalist power to acquire advanced technologies and foreign experts) in wake of nixon’s visit relaxation of cultural policy (wetern orchestras) and 1973 examinations reintroduced into criteria for university entrance

Question 45

Describe the Power Struggle During Mao’s Succession

Answer 45

• the lack of chosen successor lead to increase of factional rivalry
• mao exonerated radicals and himself from public blame for the Lin affair by declaring Lin to have been a revisionist who appeared left to disguise his right essence, this shifted the power from Zhou enlai to the Zhang and the radicals
• three radicals appointed to key politburo standing committee, zhou enlai had one ally
• radicals continued power over media propaganda
• tenth congress meeting mao revealled his chosen successor to be Wang Hongwen, closely associated with radical faction in shanghai he filled correct worker-peasant-soldier class background mao considered essential in a true communist
• tenth congress meeting Mao agreed to the rehabilitation of Deng Xiaoping as understudy to Zhou Enlai and work alongside Wang Hongwen in administration
• the balance of experienced with inexperienced and moderate with radical in post cultural revolution china was unstable
• Wang visited mao to warn him Zhou and Deng were plotting to seize power mao saw that this was factional plotting on the behalf of Jiang, mao warned Wang against Jiang however he was already too closely allied with her and in 1975 mao decided Wang was too inexperienced and lacked the independance of mind to be his successor
• Zhou Enlai along with Mao suffered a terminal illness and withdrew from public life in 1975
• Deng Xiaoping promoted to second vice-premier
• january 1975 Deng political cnrtol of the PLA placing in him in key position within three branches of PRC system
• Deng pursued Zhou’s pragmatic agenda
• summer 1975 Jiang and allies forced self-criticism
• mao aware the gang of four were the only communist he could rely on to champion the aims of the cultural revolution and was therefore receptive to their argument that deng was neglecting class struggle accusing him of reversing the verdict of CR
• october november 1975 mao withdrew his support of Deng (depriving him of power althought positions were retained)
• article by Zhang Chunqiao following Zhou Enlai implied he was a capitalist-roader this incited student protest in nanjing which spread to beijing and the festival of the dead at tiananmen square to honour zhou turned into protest against Jiang Qing and her allies and mao, violence between police and protestors resulting in arrests and executions (spontaneous deomonstration showed party’s lack of control of events)
• deng held responsible for counter-revolutionary incident and he was dismissed from all positions
• Mao decided chosen successor to be Hua Guofeng
• summer 1976 Gang of four worked to outmanouevre Hua Guofeng they placed 100,000 strong-shanghai militia on the alert in august which drove Hua to seek alliances elsewhere particularly with PLA military commaders
• mao died 9 september 1976
• 6 october 1976 with support of PLA Hua arrested Gang of Four and factional rivalry was ended Hua succeeded to all top positions withing party state and military.

Question 46

What Was The Anti-Confucius Campaign?

Answer 46

• 1973 Jiang launched campaign
• received extensive media coverage
• attack on confucius targeting lin biao and Zhou Enlai
• Zhou’s pragmatic policies on economy, education (the case of Zhang Tietsen) and contact with foreign powers seemingly threatened the ideological legacy of the cultural revolution
• Jiang accused Zhou of treason for being too impatient for Mao’s succession
• The attack on Zhou was also on Deng because they worked together
• Radical pushed for expansion of communes the removal of incentives payments and private plots and an end to technoloy transfer from the west
• ‘Learn from Dazhai’ slogan: dazhai a production birgade that had achieved increased agricultural and industrial production through maoist policies
• Mao orginally supprted campaign for its efforts to combat revisionism and protect the cultural revolutions achievements
• mao withdrew support and sided with zhou when jiang hijacked the campaign for her own ends in the factional war between radicals and Zhou and Deng