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agony > purgatory (exam 2) > Flashcards

purgatory (exam 2) Flashcards

1
Q

Person(s) who severed the hemispheres of cats and monkeys discovering the 2 hemispheres function separately?

A

Myers & Sperry

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2
Q

Bilateral structures are also called

A

homotopic areas (on both sides of the brain)

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3
Q

At birth there is an _________ of axons. During development you lose many of these connections.

A

overproduction

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4
Q

Test that tests hemispheric function.

A

Wada test

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5
Q

During the Wada test, you anesthize the ipsilateral hemisphere. If you anesthize the left side you ability to _______ is temporarily impaired.

A

speak

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6
Q

Left hemisphere is responsible for ________ and is ________ oriented.

A

language; detail oriented

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7
Q

Right hemisphere is responsible for ____ recognition, ________ prosody and is __________ oriented.

A

face; emotional; holistic/big picture

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8
Q

Left side is anesthetized, the spoon is handed to the left hand, and info goes from left to right side of the brain typically in this situation, but bc there’s severance between the 2 sides (left side is numbed), so they wont have any idea what is in their hand (they don’t think there’s anything there). But if you ask them to point to the object in a list, they’ll correctly point out the spoon.

A

idk just know this

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9
Q

______ hemisphere protrudes more in the back while the _______ hemisphere protrudes more in the front.

A

left; right

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10
Q

The corpus callosum connects the ________ regions of the left and right hemispheres

A

homotopic

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11
Q

In comparison to the corpus callosum, the ________ __________ is smaller than the corpus callosum and connects temporal lobe areas.

A

anterior commissure

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12
Q

(CHECK)Dyslexia and schizophrenia are associated with a lack of brain ________

A

asymmetry

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13
Q

The ability to communicate solely to one hemisphere is based on the anatomy of the optic nerve

A

Hemispheric specialization

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14
Q

At the _______ the optic nerve divides in half. The fibers that carry the visual info from the _____ portion of each retina cross and project to the visual cortex of the opposite hemisphere. The fibers that carry visual info from the ______ portion of the retina continue on to the visual cortex of the _______ hemisphere.

A

optic chiasm; medial; lateral

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15
Q

In tests with split brain patients, experiments restrict visual stimulus to _____ hemisphere.

A

one

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16
Q

Name one of the 3 methodological consideration researchers must take into account when conducting experiments with split-brain patients.

A

Cross cueing, when one hemisphere initiates a behavior and the other hemisphere detects it externally (not intentional) giving it a cue about the answer

These are already unique patients w/ neurological damage considering they had epilepsy

Amount of resection(amount removed)

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17
Q

The ability to understand that others have thoughts, beliefs, and desires that may differ from your own

A

Theory of Mind

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18
Q

What is the critical structure for Theory of Mind?

A

temporal-parietal junction in the right hemisphere (TJP)

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19
Q

T/F: Both hemispheres are engaged in Theory of Mind

A

true

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20
Q

Aside from the TPJ, what other 2 regions are activated in Theory of Mind?

A

mPFC and pSTS (posterior superior temp sulcus)

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21
Q

T/F: emotional information is transferred across the corpus callosum

A

False, both hemispheres have access to it

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22
Q

T/F: Right hemisphere is typically the “interpreter”

A

False, left hemisphere is, however for illusory contours RH can

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23
Q

Split brain patient is given a command to the right hemisphere to stand up. They stand up. If you were to ask them why they stood up, what would they say?

A

they’d make something up, the left hemisphere “interpreter” has to come up with a reason

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24
Q

If a image is shown to your left visual field, what hemisphere does it go to?

A

right

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25
Q

The left hemisphere’s need to interpret and come up with explanations can contribute to ________

A

false memories

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26
Q

Who claimed Both hemispheres can detect familiar stimuli and new unrelated stimuli, but LH tends to detect false positives when the new stimuli are related?

A

Phelps & Gazzaniga

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27
Q

Language is lateralized in the ________ hemisphere

A

left

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28
Q

((?????))))If you have a complete severance of the hemispheres are you able to verbalize information (coming from right?)

A

no

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29
Q

Inability to recognize faces, including one’s own

A

prosopagnosia

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30
Q

Fusiform area is responsible for what

A

face recognition

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31
Q

Faces are processed _________ in the _______ hemisphere

A

holistically; right

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32
Q

Perception and recognition are better for faces presented upright as opposed to inverted. What is this effect called?
Similarly, its hard for our brains to notice a difference when a face is turned upside down but the features remain upright, what is this called?

A

Face Inversion effect (FIE);
Thatcher Effect

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33
Q

T/F: Monkeys fail to show a decrease in preformance when faces are inverted

A

true

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34
Q

The now debunked idea that children process faces in a piecemeal fashion is called what?

A

Encoding Switch Hypothesis

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35
Q

T/F: Processing faces holistically likely preceeds part based processing of faces

A

true

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36
Q

Prosopagnosia is typically acquired through _________ and is an example of __________ (anterograde/retrograde/both) amnesia.

A

brain damage; Both antero and retrograde amnesia

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37
Q

T/F: People with prosopagnosia have difficulty consciously recognizing faces, even subconsciously they show no recognition of the faces

A

False,
studies have shown that they are subconsciously recognizing the faces in that there is a skin conductance response when they see the faces of people they know

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38
Q

Face perception emerges from ______ input and ________. Through sensation (visual stimulation), we create representations (percepts). Therefore, * Prosopagnosia is a failure to match _______ input to ____________.

A

sensory; recognition; sensory; representations

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39
Q

When the top half of one face is aligned with the bottom half of another, and presented upright, the resulting composite arrangement is interpreted as a novel face. What is this illusion called?

A

Composite face illusion

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40
Q

Infants who learned to recognize monkey faces which were individually labeled (named) over a 3 month period ___________(maintained/lost) the ability to discriminate monkey faces. However infants who learned the monkey faces categorically (all labeled monkey, or not labeled at all) showed a _________(increase/decline) in the ability to discriminate monkey faces.

A

Maintained; decline

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41
Q

sensory receptors are on ______ organs

A

sensory

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42
Q

Sensory info (aside from olfaction) goes from thalamus to _____________ regions.

A

primary sensory

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43
Q

Receptor cells do not become active until the stimulus exceeds a minimum ___________.

A

intensity level (threshold)

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44
Q

How well we can distinguish among stimuli within a sensory modality

A

acuity

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45
Q

Acuity depends on the _____________ of receptors.

A

number and distribution

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46
Q

Visual acuity is best when the image is in the _______ of the visual field. The movement of our eyes is called ______

A

center; saccades

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47
Q

Can you adjust acuity based on external things? If so, give an example.

A

yes, squinting to see better

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48
Q

If a sensory system devotes more receptors to certain types of info, what change do we see in cortical representation?

A

corresponding increase in cortical representation

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49
Q

Our senses converge together and can effect each other

A

Multisensory integration

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50
Q

Auditory perception:
Sound waves enter ________, causing them to get _______.
Waves hit the _________, causing it to vibrate.
Vibrations travel through the __________ and rattle the __________, __________, and __________. This causes the ________ to vibrate.
These vibrations are sensed by tiny ________ along the ________ membrane of the fluid-filled ________.
Finally, the deflection of the hair cells (aka stereocilia) produces a ___________.

A

auditory canal; amplified; tympanic membrane (eardrum); middle ear; malleus; incus; stapes; oval window; hair cells; basilar membrane; cochlea; action potential

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51
Q

What determines the frequency tuning of a hair cell?

A

its location on the membrane

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52
Q

The spatial arrangement of the haircells, and hence their frequency tuning, is called __________.

A

tonotopy

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53
Q

What kind of receptors do hair cells act as?

A

mechanoreceptors

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54
Q

What is the leading cause of deafness?

A

loss of haircells

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55
Q

Auditory nerve projects to the __________.

A

cochlear nuclei

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56
Q

Each auditory nerve fiber splits to synapse in both the ______ and _______ cochlear nuclei. Info then travels up to the _____ where it splits again.

A

dorsal; ventral; pons

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57
Q

Axons from cochlear nuclei and olivary nuclei project to ________ in the midbrain. Then this projects to the ____________________ (auditory) in the thalamus. And then to the ___________ cortex in the temporal lobe.

A

inferior colliculus; medial geniculate nucleus; primary auditory

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58
Q

This orients your head towards the sound

A

inferior colliculus

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59
Q

Where is the primary auditory cortex?

A

temporal lobe

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60
Q

T/F: Where sound is processed depends on the actual sound.

A

true

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61
Q

Rostral A1- ____ frequency
Caudal A1- ____ frequency

A

low; high

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62
Q

The difference in when sound reaches each ear

A

Intra aural time

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63
Q

Locating specific elements in music (ex. chorus, bass) is called what

A

Feature Extraction

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64
Q

The opposite of Feature Extraction is what?

A

feature integration

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65
Q

Feature Extraction is ________ processing while Feature Integration is __________ processing.

A

bottom up; top down

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66
Q

It is what distinguishes instruments and also describes the way a single instrument can change sound as it moves across its range.

A

Timbre

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67
Q

_____ is so important that the brain represents it directly, unlike any other musical attribute

A

Pitch

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68
Q

T/F: Music activates numerous parts of the brain. There is no such thing as the “music center”.

A

true

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69
Q

Part of the brain important for distinguishing Timbre

A

STS

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70
Q

Patients who experience temporal lobe epilepsy have reported musical ___________ to occur

A

hallucinations

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71
Q

Perceiving information at a distance

A

remote sensing

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72
Q

In the visual pathway, light passes through the ______ of the eye. The image is inverted and focused to project onto the _______.

A

lens; retina

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73
Q

The retina is a densely packed layer of ______

A

neurons

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74
Q

The deepest retinal layer is made of millions of ____________ containing _____________

A

photoreceptors; photopigments

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75
Q

What are the 2 types of photoreceptors?

A

Rods & cone

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76
Q

______ are responsible for vision at low light and are evenly distributed. And ______ are active during the daytime and detect different colors. They are packed densely near the center (fovea).

A

Rods; cones

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77
Q

What are the 3 types of cones and describe them briefly.

A

Short – responds to short wavelengths (bluish)
Medium – responds to medium wavelengths (greenish)
Long – responds to long wavelengths (reddish)

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78
Q

Light-sensitive proteins

A

Photopigments

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79
Q

What are the 2 types of photopigments and where are they found?

A

Photopsin: color vision - found in the cones
Rhodopsin: low light contrasts - found in the rods

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80
Q

What happens when a Rhodopsin is exposed to light. Describe the 2 steps leading to an action potential.

A

-When exposed to light they split apart.
-This causes destabilization of the photoreceptors causes depolarization of their membrane potential
-This triggers A.ps in downstream neurons (transduction)

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81
Q

Rods and cones are connected to _______ neurons.

A

bipolar

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82
Q

Rods and cones are connected to bipolar neurons that synapse with _______ which causes the information to get __________.

A

ganglion cells; compressed

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83
Q

Ganglion axons bundle to form the _______.
Cross-over of info occurs at the __________.

A

optic nerve; optic chiasm

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84
Q

There are 2 pathways the ganglion axons in the optic nerve help form, however, 90% of these axons are forming the ___________.

A

retinogeniculate pathway

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85
Q

The retinogeniculate pathway is bringing info from the ______ to the ____________ of the thalamus. Then the info travels from there to the _____________ cortex.

A

retina; lateral geniculate nucleus; primary visual cortex

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86
Q

!What pathway goes from the retina to the thalamus?

A

retinogeniculate pathway

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87
Q

!What pathway goes from the thalamus to the Secondary visual cortex?

A

Geniculocortical pathway

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88
Q

10% of the axons in the optic nerve are going to a different part of the thalamus called the _________ and the __________.

A

Pulvinar nucleus; superior colliculus

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89
Q

These are on/off edge detectors. When it’s active, it indicates the position of the stimulus and the orientation of the stimulus’s edge

A

V1

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90
Q

Region within the visual field in which stimulation affects neuron’s response

A

receptive field

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91
Q

Receptive visual fields form_________ maps

A

topographical (Retinotopic)

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92
Q

As you move along in the visual system from areas (ex. V1, V2, V3) then the type of ________ the cell responds to changes

A

stimulation

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93
Q

Cells in retina & LGN respond best to _________-

A

small spots of light

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94
Q

V4 optimal stimulus becomes more complex. Give an example of a stimulus it’d respond to

A

Faces or shapes

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95
Q

As you go up in Visual areas (V2, V3, V4) what happens to the receptive fields?

A

receptive fields become larger

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96
Q

T/F: The organization of early visual areas can’t be seen in people who lack vision

A

false

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97
Q

V5 (MT) cells do not respond to _________. But they do respond to __________

A

color; direction and movement

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98
Q

V5 (MT) cells respond best to __________ movement. They respond maximally when the stimulus is moved _______(slowly/quickly)

A

down & leftward ; quickly

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99
Q

Why do more males have colorblindness?

A

its a recessive gene on the X chromosome

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99
Q

Why do more males have colorblindness?

A

its a recessive gene on the X chromosome

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100
Q

Why do more males have colorblindness?

A

its a recessive gene on the X chromosome

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101
Q

3 cones working together to determine what color you’re looking at (not colorblind)

A

Trichromacy

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102
Q

What are the 2 most common type of colorblindness?

A

Anomalous trichromats & Dichromats

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103
Q

In this type of colorblindness, all 3 photopigments are present but one exhibits abnormal sensitivity

A

Anomalous trichromats

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104
Q

If the L or M cones are impaired, what type of colorblindness will you have?

A

Red green

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105
Q

If the S cone is impaired, what type of colorblindness will you have?

A

blue yellow

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106
Q

Individuals with only 2 photopigments

A

Dichromats

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107
Q

Dichromats who have red-green colorblindness are missing what?

A

photopigments sensitive to medium or long wavelengths

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108
Q

Dichromats who have blue-yellow colorblindness are missing what?

A

Blue-yellow: missing photopigment sensitive to short wavelengths (very rare)

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109
Q

Partial or total absence of color vision, involves lesions to V4

A

Achromatopsia

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110
Q

Loss of motion detection, view the world as a series of snapshots

A

Akinetopsia

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111
Q

-Perception is a synthetic process
-Coherent representation
-Coherence sometimes involves distorting the sensory info to make it all make sense (ex. McGurk effect)

A

Multimodal perception

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112
Q

To integrate sensory info into a coherent percept the brain prioritizes _______________ (usually visual info, e.g., McGurk effect)

A

the most reliable signals

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113
Q
  • Multimodal site
  • has topographical maps of visual, auditory, and tactile info
  • Has cells that respond more to multimodal stimuli
  • Spatial and temporal coincidence detection for integration
A

Superior colliculus

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114
Q

Has projections to and from sensory cortices.
It responds to visual, auditory, and somatosensory stimuli. It’s activated during lip reading when the sound matches the movements.

A

STS

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115
Q

What are 5 things the STS is involved in?

A

STAMP!
-Speech processing
-Theory of mind
-Audiovisual (somatosensory) integration
-Motion perception
-Processing faces

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116
Q

T/F: The function of the STS is unaffected by the activation of other brain regions

A

false, it is

117
Q

Can auditory and visual stimuli enhance the perception of the other sense? If so, give an example.

A

yes, ex. greater sense of touch because you were listening to music

118
Q

When TMS was conducted over the visual cortex increased response time to _________

A

auditory stimulus

119
Q

When TMS was conducted, phosphenes were only visible when _________ stimulus was presented

A

auditory

120
Q

What is an example of an error in multimodal processing?

A

Synesthesia - when senses are mixed

121
Q

What is the most common form of Synesthesia?

A

Grapheme-color / or colored-sequence

122
Q

!People with Grapheme-color synesthesia are better at ____________. What is this an example of?

A

color discrimination; acuity

123
Q

People with Synesthia may have visual processing areas organized in a ________ (less/more) distributed way

A

more (not confined to visual cortex)

124
Q

In response to a story being read (auditory), you imagine things in your head (visual), what is this an example of?

A

Cross-modal plasticity/ Cortical plasticity

125
Q

T/F: Deaf individuals show activation in the auditory cortex in response to visual and tactile stimuli.

A

true

126
Q

T/F: Cross-modal plasticity can’t occur when the disability is congenital

A

false, it usually occurs when the disability is congenital

127
Q

Bernard Berenson noted that people tend to respond (physically) to the subject of a painting. They may unconsciously adjust their facial expression and posture to mirror the subject of the portrait. What is this called? What did he postulate was the reason?

A

Beholder’s Share; empathetic response to mirror the subject’s emotional state

128
Q

Who came up with the idea of “Beholder’s share”?

A

Bernard Berenson

129
Q

Beholder’s Share likely involves __________.

A

mirror neurons

130
Q

Where do we see activation when someone has a moment of creativity/ insight?

A

Association cortices

131
Q

When it comes to creativity what are the 3 most important cortices?

A

FAP! Association, Frontal and Parietal

132
Q

Do Inhibitory and excitatory mechanisms ever interact?

A

yes

133
Q

Brain damage causes the _________ of certain functions. Creativity entails the removal of inhibitions.

(ex. The left hemisphere in some ways is inhibiting the right hemisphere. So when you have a stroke in the left hemisphere, you remove that inhibition which is called disinhibition. This causes activation in the right hemisphere, which is involved in things like novelty. This can lead to creative outbursts)

A

disinhibition

134
Q

Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex is involved in ____________.
So, upon deactivating it you’ve removed your ___________ which leads to an increase in creativity.

A

impulse control; inhibitions

135
Q

Inhibitory and excitatory circuits that interact between _________ which is involved in ________ processing.

A

hemispheres; creative

136
Q

When jazz musicians improvised music, they saw a deactivation of the ___________.

A

DLPFC

137
Q

A collection of artworks exclusively created by the mentally ill, 70% had Schizophrenia, 30% were Bipolar.

A

The Heidelberg Collection

138
Q

He made the distinction between episodic and semantic memory. Also said mental time travel is unique to humans.

A

Endel Tulving

139
Q

The idea that memory isn’t unitary and in fact, there are a lot of different types of memory was pioneered by who?

A

Larry Squire

140
Q

Long term memory branches into __________ & _________ memory.

A

declarative/explicit; nondeclarative/implicit

141
Q

What are the 4 categories of implicit memory?

A

She’s ProPer, he has NoClass
Procedural memory, Perceptual representation system, Classical conditioning, Nonassociative learning

142
Q

What is explicit memory also called?
What is implicit memory also called?

A

declarative; nondeclarative

143
Q

What are the 2 categories of declarative memory?

A

Events(episodic) and Facts (semantic)

144
Q

What is memory split into?

A

LTM and STM (aka sensory/working memory)

145
Q

Learning is equated with ____________

A

acquisition/ encoding

146
Q

What are the stages of memory?

A

Acquisition, Consolidation, Retrieval

147
Q

T/F: Memories like a filing cabinet

A

false, they are malleable

148
Q

What are the time courses of each type of memory:
Sensory- ____
STM/ working- _____
LTM Nondeclarative - _____
LTM Declarative- ______

A

milliseconds to seconds;
seconds to minutes;
minutes to years;
minutes to years;

149
Q

Under sensory memory, auditory info is called _____ memory and visual info is called ______ memory

A

echoic; iconic

150
Q

T/F: Short-term memory is longer than sensory memory

A

true

151
Q

Can the contents of WM be obtained from sensory memory or LTM?

A

yes

152
Q

Main difference between STM and WM is that info in WM is used in _________

A

cognitive tasks

153
Q

Both STM and LTM activate the ________, ________, and _________ cortices. Also the sensory cortex, basal ganglia & thalamus. Research shows that oscillatory synchrony of these areas may underly WM.

A

prefrontal; cingulate; parietal

154
Q

In the past, WM was predominantly associated with the PFC, however, more recent work has shown that WM is _____________

A

distributed across the cortex

155
Q

What test involved WM?

A

Wisconsin Card Sorting Test

156
Q

*Individuals with schizophrenia have impairments in the Wisconsin Test. This led to the hypothesis that if WM involves the PFC, Schizophrenics have a deficit in the ______. However, we now know this test actually tests more than just WM such as ___________.

A

PFC; attention or visual processing

157
Q

Said that information is processed linearly from Sensory –> STM –> LTM. It claimed that there are discrete stages of memory.

A

Atkinson & Shiffrin Modal Model of Memory

158
Q

What are 2 cases that challenged the Modal Model of memory?

A

Patient K.F. had brain damage and showed impairments in STM using the digit span test. Remarkably, he was able to form long-term memories despite having problems with short-term memory. This showed a dissociation between STM and LTM. Therefore, STM may not be required to form LTM

Patient E.E. also had damage, he also showed a deficit of STM abilities but the preservation of LTM.

159
Q

Which patient(s) had Double Dissociation?

A

Patient H.M

160
Q

The central executive mechanism coordinates interactions between two subordinate STM stores (the phonological loop & the visuospatial “sketch pad”) and LTM

A

Baddeley & Hitch WM Model

161
Q

Describe the Visuospatial “sketch pad” – visual/spatial code of the Baddeley & Hitch WM Model. What does it suggest?

A

If given a list, people perform better when they have visual imagery to remember it compared to an auditory memory strategy. However, if you then introduce auditory interference it will interfere more than visual interference.
This suggested that there is a distinction between verbal and visual WM, and that memory is not a unitary system.

162
Q

Describe the Phonological loop – acoustic code of the Baddeley & Hitch WM Model. What does it suggest?

A

Recall of words is easier when they don’t sound similar, because if you had words that sounded similar to each other this would provide interference.
This suggests that WM uses an acoustic code rather than a semantic (definitions) code

163
Q

Patients with lesions on ____________
have deficits in phonological working
memory: They cannot hold strings of
words in working memory.

A

Brodmann area 40

164
Q

In the phonological loop, the rehearsal process involves a region called ___________

A

Brodmann area 44

165
Q

What areas of the left hemisphere network are involved in phonological working memory?

A

lateral frontal and inferior parietal lobes

166
Q

He said “working memory is not STM, what is special about WM is volition”

A

Earl Miller

167
Q

Initially hypothesized that WM was maintained by persistant action potentials (spiking); later evidence suggested that WM spiking is not as persistent as once thought. What was this idea called?

A

Sustained representations

168
Q

In contrast with the Sustained Representations (persistent spiking) model, this model says WM is maintained by spikes that “refresh” the memory. This has functional advantages over persistent spiking.

A

Activity-silent models

169
Q

Memories held by persistent spiking alone (Sustained representation model) can be easily _________ because they are lost when activity
is disrupted. While the memory is spiking the memory is in a ___________ state.

A

changed; vulnerable

170
Q

T/F: Models of sparse/”on and off” spiking (A-S models) have trouble holding more than one memory at a time.

A

False, models of persistent spiking (S.R) have trouble holding more than one memory at a time

171
Q

T/F: Neurons optimize information when they spike sparsely and in bursts, not persistently.

A

true

172
Q

Why does WM have a limited capacity?

A

If too many items are simultaneously held,
it causes a buildup of interference due to
competition for the limited time available for
the refresh – capacity is limited because of the
coding scheme

173
Q

What are the 2 models explainig why WM has a limited capacity?

A

Resource Model & Slot Model

174
Q

The more things you have to hold in WM, the less activation energy you can devote to each item.

A

Resource Model (Why does WM have a limited capacity)

175
Q

Only a certain amount of slots, phenomenon is all or none – a stimulus is encoded (remembered) or not, no partial information is acquired unlike resource model.

A

Slot Model

176
Q

T/F: The slot model is the approved explanation as to why WM has a limited capacity

A

False, both the slot and resource models are correct

177
Q

What are the advantages of the activity silent model?

A

-memories are less vulnerable when they’re not persistently firing
-can hold more than one memory at a time.
-Neurons optimize information when they spike sparsely and in bursts, not persistently.

178
Q

T/F: Chunking is a form of compression and requires less space in WM

A

true

179
Q

T/F: LTM can be retained for your whole life

A

true

180
Q

Memory for events and facts, both personal and general, to which we have conscious access, and can verbally report

A

Declarative memory

181
Q

H.M. was impaired in forming new _________ memories, we know that this capacity depends on the ___________ lobe

A

declarative; medial temporal

182
Q

Endel Tulving said declarative memory
be split into ________ and ________ memory

A

episodic; semantic

183
Q

Autobiographical memory can be split into ______ & ________

A

episodic autobiographical memory & nonepisodic (semantic)

184
Q

Memory that pertains to yourself, and it can be
episodic or semantic

A

autobiographical memory

185
Q

Knowing something about yourself but not remembering the experience is what kind of memory?

A

Semantic Autobiographical memory

186
Q

This type of memory is objective factual knowledge (e.g., capital of Lebanon is Beirut)

A

Semantic

187
Q

T/F: One difference between episodic and semantic is that episodic memory includes associated
contextual info relating to the place it was learned/experienced

A

true

188
Q

Comprises memories of events that the person has
experienced that include contextual elements: e.g., what happened, where it happened, when, and with whom

A

Episodic

189
Q

T/F: Episodic memory is synonymous with personal knowledge

A

false

190
Q

T/F: Schemas come from semanticization of memories

A

true

191
Q

Having an idea of what a certain concept (ex. birthday) is called a what

A

schema

192
Q

(CHECK)Schema involves what parts of the brain?

A

mostly hippocampus but also the prefrontal cortex.

193
Q

!List 5 examples of Non-declarative memory

A

Procedural memory, Priming, conditioning, habituation, sensitization

194
Q

You don’t have conscious access to this type of memory and it can not be expressed verbally

A

Non-declarative memory (implicit)

195
Q

What 2 things make up nonassociative learning?

A

Habituation and sensitization

196
Q

Draw out the flowchart of Nondeclarative memory starting from LTM.

A

LTM: Declarative and Nondeclarative
Nondeclarative- procedural memory, perceptual Representation system, classical conditioning, nonassociative learning (ProPer NoClass)

procedural memory–> skills (motor & cognitive)
PRS –> priming
Classical conditioning–> conditioning
Nonassociative Learning–> Habituation, Sensitization

197
Q

When a memory is highly contextual it requires the _________ so as it becomes more schematized it becomes __________ (more/less) dependent on the hippocampus and ________ (more/less) dependent on cortical structure (PFC).

A

hippocampus; less; more

198
Q

T/F: After a memory is decontextualized (semanticized) you can’t recontextualize it

A

false

199
Q

Motor skills (e.g., riding a bike) or Cognitive skills (ex. reading)

A

Procedural memory

200
Q

The theory that memories get reorganized to become less dependent on the hippocampus as they become semanticized size or schematized

A

Systems Consolidation

201
Q

Procedural memory relies on ___________ loops

A

cortical-basal ganglia

202
Q

H.M. could not form new _________ memories but could form new _________ memories

A

declarative; procedural

203
Q

The phenomenon whereby exposure to one stimulus subconsciously influences a response to a subsequent stimulus

A

Priming effect

204
Q

In Priming, exposure to the ________ stimulus subconsciously influences a response to the __________ stimulus

A

priming; target

205
Q

!H.M. benefitted from _______ suggesting it is medial temporal-lobe independent

A

priming

206
Q

_________ is specific for the sensory modality of the learning and test phases

A

Priming

207
Q

Greater advantage will be conferred when the priming stimulus is presented visually if the subsequent test is also ______; the same for auditory stimuli

A

visual

208
Q

Patient H.M. benefitted from priming and his impairments were in the medial temporal lobe, how does this show a single dissociation?

A

because the priming was independent of the MTL

209
Q

Is it possible for brain lesions to affect the PRS while leaving long-term memory intact? What evidence proves or disproves this?

A

yes, patient M.S had impairment in priming but not in LTM

210
Q

What did Patient M.S. show? What kind of dissociation was it?

A

showed that Brodmann’s areas 17,18 & 19 are important for priming because they had lesioned them and they showed impairments in priming;
Double Dissociation

211
Q

T/F: Conceptual priming lasts longer than perceptual features

A

false

212
Q

Is conceptual priming different from declarative memory? Are we consciously aware of it?

A

Yes; No

213
Q

The prime and target are different words from the same semantic category, it lasts only a few seconds (based on semantic associations)

A

Semantic Priming

214
Q

Classical Conditioning is ___________ (associative/nonassociative) learning.

A

associative

215
Q

A neutral stimulus (ex. a bell), becomes a ____________ through repeated pairing with an __________ (ex. food) that elicits an ____________ (ex. salivating)

A

conditioned stimulus; unconditioned stimulus; unconditioned stimulus

216
Q

In classical conditioning:
A learned association emerges, and the _______ acquires properties that facilitate retrieval of the conditioned memory in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus. Thus, re-exposure to the conditioned stimulus demonstrates this learned relationship (ex. dog salivates in the presence of the bell alone)

A

conditioned stimulus

217
Q

Conditioned stimulus and Unconditioned Stimulus overlap, with Conditioned Stimulus starting first and both ending at the same time

A

Delay conditioning

218
Q

Conditioned Stimulus precedes Unconditioned Stimulus. Gap between when Conditioned Stimulus ends, and Unonditioned Stimulus presentation begins

A

Trace conditioning

219
Q

Conditioned Stimulus precedes Unconditioned Stimulus. Gap between when Conditioned Stimulus ends and Unconditioned Stimulus presentation begins

A

Trace conditioning

220
Q

Delay conditioning is _______(HPC independent/ dependent).
Trace conditioning is _______(HPC independent/ dependent).

A

HPC independent; HPC dependent

221
Q

T/F: Not all associative learning depends on the HPC

A

true

222
Q

What type of conditioning is used to study fear-related behaviors?

A

Fear conditioning

223
Q

The diminishing of a physiological response to a repeated stimulus

A

Habituation

224
Q

Who developed a novel theory for sensory habituation? They proposed that the memory engrams for habituation experience may in fact be ensembles of inhibitory neurons forming to provide a “negative image” of the excitatory ensembles that mediate the perception of environmental stimuli.

A

Cooke and Ramaswami

225
Q

In habituation, if the stimulus is withheld, the response tends to _______(fade away/recover) over time

A

recover

226
Q

In habituation, the ______ (stronger/weaker) the stimulus, the more rapid and/or more pronounced is the habituation.

A

weaker

227
Q

T/F: Presentation of another (usually strong) stimulus results in recovery of the habituated response (dishabituation)

A

true

228
Q

T/F: Habituation isn’t gated: it occurs more efficiently if reward, punishment, or strong emotional engagement occurs together with stimulus exposure

A

False, Habituation is gated: it occurs less efficiently if reward, punishment, or strong emotional
engagement occurs together with stimulus exposure

229
Q

With the enhancement of a physiological response to a repeated stimulus, the organism becomes more responsive to the same stimulus. The flipside of habituation (its enhancement, more response to a lower level of the stimulus)

A

Sensitization

230
Q

Sensitization in sea slug: A tactile stimulus applied to the siphon elicits a __________ reflex. This was discovered by a neuroscientist named __________.

A

gill withdrawal; Eric Kandel

231
Q

The processing of incoming information which creates memory traces or ”engrams” via biochemical changes (e.g., changes in synaptic strength and connections)

A

Encoding

232
Q

Gazzaniga describes encoding as a two-process system, what are the 2 steps?

A
  1. Acquisition
  2. Consolidation
233
Q

Encoding creates memory traces aka ________

A

engrams

234
Q

In Acquisition, sensory info is coming in, being filtered, some information will go onto to ______or ______

A

STM or LTM

235
Q

The stabilization of memory traces via plasticity. It is how memory goes from STM (or sensory memory) to LTM.

A

Consolidation

236
Q

Retention (preservation) of memory traces, opposite of decay

A

Storage

237
Q

Successfully accessing memory traces for use; drives decision-making and behavior

A

Retrieval

238
Q

The idea that memories are “consolidated” came from two major findings, what are they?

A
  1. Brain damage/trauma –> post-traumatic amnesia
    * Retrograde amnesia
    * Anterograde amnesia
  2. Resection of the hippocampus caused anterograde and retrograde amnesia (Scoville & Milner, 1957)
239
Q

The process by which the hippocampus guides the
reorganization of the information stored in the neocortex such that it eventually becomes independent of the hippocampus

A

Systems consolidation

240
Q

With hippocampal damage, typically, ______(new/old) memories will stay intact, while the ______ (oldest/newest) memories are disrupted

A

old; nuest

241
Q

When you have hippocampal damage, the oldest memories will stay intact bc they’re less dependent on the hippocampus. This temporal gradient is called what?
“Oldest memories survive the best”

A

Ribot’s Law

242
Q

The neurosurgeon who performed the bilateral hippocampal resection surgery on H.M.

A

William Scoville:

243
Q

The neurosurgeon who performed the bilateral hippocampal resection surgery on H.M.

A

William Scoville

244
Q

H.M. had normal ____ and______ memory but impaired _______ memory

A

STM; working memory; LTM

245
Q

The neurosurgeon known for his work on the cortical homunculus, hallucinations, & déjà vu

A

Wilder Penfield

246
Q

Penfield’s Student, also the primary researcher who studied Henry after his surgery.

A

Brenda Milner

247
Q

Milner’s student, Henry’s primary researcher after Milner

A

Suzanne Corkin

248
Q

The ___________ theory explained that old memories don’t depend on the HPC, which is why they are preserved, however new memories require the HPC.

A

systems consolidation

249
Q

Systems consolidation theory is the process by which the HPC guides the reorganization of the info stored in the neocortex such that it eventually becomes
independent of the HPC. What is this model in particular called?

A

(standard model of Larry Squire)

250
Q

Organized group of past experiences create an archetype or motif called a what

A

Schema

251
Q

The assumption of _________ theory, is old memories are still depend on the HPC but are more resistant to disruption because they have had more opportunities to be reactivated

A

multiple trace theory

252
Q

the theory that merged the standard systems consolidation model and multiple trace theory.

A

competitive trace theory

253
Q

Memory traces are both in the hippocampus and PFC there are 2 traces, hence the name, every time you remember something you create a new trace. Each reactivation creates a new index in the hippocampus and because these copies are distributed across cortical areas, therefore the memory can survive partial damage.
“memory survives cause there are so many traces of it”

A

Multiple Trace theory

254
Q

Hippocampus plays a critical role in ______(new/old) memories

A

new

255
Q

Both computations seem to rely on the hippocampus proper, but they also seem to be instantiated by distinct hippocampal subfields. from computational neuroscience

A

Pattern completion and pattern separation

256
Q

Representational reinstatement of an episodic memory trace upon receiving only a partial cue (only part of the memory trace is activated). Generating an entire memory from only part of the memory trace

A

Pattern completion

257
Q

Representational orthogonalization (separation) of
episodic memory traces upon receiving highly similar
inputs (leading to a high degree of mnemonic
discrimination for similar events).
The ability to store and disambiguate events that are
highly similar by using a code in the brain where the
cells that correspond to those events are memory traces that are completely unique (This is new)
Where does this occur?

A

Pattern separation; dentate gyrus

258
Q

Hippocampal tri-synaptic loops were discovered by who

A

Cajal

259
Q

DLPFC is responsible for what

A

impuls

260
Q

A memory is brought back to the forefront and it’s vulnerable again, doesn’t happen every time u remember, but typically in the presence of new info coming in

A

Reconsolidation

261
Q

There’s competition btwn the traces and the ones in the cortex win bc the older memories become more semanticized

A

competitive

262
Q

The phenomenon where adults have difficulty recalling
memories of early childhood, even though very young children are capable of forming memories. This was established by who?

A

Infantile amnesia; Freud

263
Q

Capacity to form and verbally recall ________ memories gradually emerges as an infant develops (from 24–36 months of age)

A

declarative

264
Q

Memory retention _________(increases/decreases) linearly with age

A

increases

265
Q

The hypothesis that infantile amnesia is due to high levels of hippocampal neurogenesis. This hypothesis predicts that integration of these “new neurons” degrades existing memories by either increasing the excitability (and therefore instability) of hippocampal memory networks or replacing synaptic connections in pre-existing hippocampal memory circuits

A

Neurogenic hypothesis

266
Q

The hypothesis that infantile amnesia is due to high levels of neurogenesis in the ___________. This hypothesis predicts that integration of these “new neurons” degrades existing memories by either _______(increasing/decreasing) the excitability (and therefore instability) of hippocampal memory networks or ________________ in pre-existing hippocampal memory circuits

A

hippocampus; increasing; replacing synaptic connections

267
Q

This might facilitate the formation of new memories by increasing capacity and reducing interference between old, irrelevant memories and to-be-encoded information. Ability to block irrelevant information reduces the demands on the brain when trying to
recall important information

A

adaptive forgetting

268
Q

The biological basis of memory. Learning, the process of memory encoding, involves a physical change in the brain.

A

Engrams

269
Q

Who searched for the engram?

What emerged instead was a search for _______ mechanisms that enable the formation, modulation, and retrieval of engrams.

A

Karl Lashley; plasticity

270
Q

Who created the Neural Network theory memory resides in cell assemblies formed by strengthening synaptic connections to form neural networks

A

Donald Hebb

271
Q

_____ & ________ found evidence for Hebb’s law. By applying high frequency stimulation to certain axons, they observed an increase in the magnitude of _______ (greater synaptic strength) – granule cell response was larger with later stimulation. This was called Long term potentiation.

A

Timothy Bliss & Terje Lømo ;EPSPs

272
Q

______ is a [long term] increase in strength & synaptic transmission between two neurons following brief but intense stimulation. It was discovered by Timothy Bliss & Terje Lømo.

A

LTP

273
Q

Opposite of LTP

A

Long-term depression

274
Q

LTP is ___________-dependent

A

protein synthesis

275
Q

LTP is able to occur because of the interaction between 2 receptors which are: _____________ and _______________ receptors.

A

glutamate AMPA receptors; NMDA receptors

276
Q

The more AMPA receptors there are, the more ___________ (polarized/depolarized) the cell is. Once it reaches a significant level of this, the Mg2+ ion that’s blocking the NMDA receptor is removed. This allows the influx of ________ into the cell through the NMDA receptor.

A

depolarized; Ca2+

277
Q

You can block LTP from occurring by blocking ______.

A

NMDA receptors

278
Q

Certain hippocampal cells fire only when an animal is in a specific location in the local environment, but never elsewhere. What are they called?

A

place cells

279
Q

The geographical location at which these place cells fire is referred to as the cell’s__________

A

place field

280
Q

T/F: By recording the firing patterns of multiple place cells – you can predict the exact location of an animal at all times

A

true

281
Q

Whereas single-place cells fire in only one location in an environment, these cells fire in multiple positions, creating a hexagonal firing pattern tessellating the area explored by the animal. Basic unit of this system’s grid is not squares, but equilateral triangles in the shape of a hexagon.

A

Grid Cells

282
Q

T/F: Neurons transiently decrease their firing rate during sleep

A

False, they increase

283
Q

________________ refers to the re-occurrence of a sequence of cell activations that also occurred during learning, but in a temporally compressed way.
(Basically: Sequence of cells that already fired during the day when the animal learned something, they re-fired when the animal was sleeping)
-Maybe in the same order, or in reverse
-Thought to be involved in systems consolidation
Sequences of activations have also been found to occur before the actual activity, in a way that predicts the sequence; this is called ________

A

Hippocampal replay; preplay

284
Q
  • Participants were presented with 50 pictures of objects at different locations on a computer matched with a related sound (cat + meowing)
  • They’re given a test where they’re only presented with the sound, they have to remember the objects
  • They then napped; while napping they were presented with sounds, half they already heard, half new
  • Result: They remembered the locations for the sounds they were presented with during sleep better
    What did this study suggest?
A

We can learn while we are sleeping and when we don’t sleep, it affects memory in a bad way

285
Q

The Morris Water Maze tests what?

A

spatial memory

286
Q

What 2 hormones are associated with mammalian stress response?

A

Cortisol and norepinephrine

287
Q

Stress can memory blank and potentiate memory through reconsolidation, a period of time when memories are modifiable following their reactivation

A

consolidation

288
Q

T/F: Memory reconsolidation is one way

A

true

289
Q

The guy who couldn’t forget

A

Patient S.

agony (3 decks)

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