purgatory (exam 2) Flashcards
1
Q
Person(s) who severed the hemispheres of cats and monkeys discovering the 2 hemispheres function separately?
A
Myers & Sperry
2
Q
Bilateral structures are also called
A
homotopic areas (on both sides of the brain)
3
Q
At birth there is an _________ of axons. During development you lose many of these connections.
A
overproduction
4
Q
Test that tests hemispheric function.
A
Wada test
5
Q
During the Wada test, you anesthize the ipsilateral hemisphere. If you anesthize the left side you ability to _______ is temporarily impaired.
A
speak
6
Q
Left hemisphere is responsible for ________ and is ________ oriented.
A
language; detail oriented
7
Q
Right hemisphere is responsible for ____ recognition, ________ prosody and is __________ oriented.
A
face; emotional; holistic/big picture
8
Q
Left side is anesthetized, the spoon is handed to the left hand, and info goes from left to right side of the brain typically in this situation, but bc there’s severance between the 2 sides (left side is numbed), so they wont have any idea what is in their hand (they don’t think there’s anything there). But if you ask them to point to the object in a list, they’ll correctly point out the spoon.
A
idk just know this
9
Q
______ hemisphere protrudes more in the back while the _______ hemisphere protrudes more in the front.
A
left; right
10
Q
The corpus callosum connects the ________ regions of the left and right hemispheres
A
homotopic
11
Q
In comparison to the corpus callosum, the ________ __________ is smaller than the corpus callosum and connects temporal lobe areas.
A
anterior commissure
12
Q
(CHECK)Dyslexia and schizophrenia are associated with a lack of brain ________
A
asymmetry
13
Q
The ability to communicate solely to one hemisphere is based on the anatomy of the optic nerve
A
Hemispheric specialization
14
Q
At the _______ the optic nerve divides in half. The fibers that carry the visual info from the _____ portion of each retina cross and project to the visual cortex of the opposite hemisphere. The fibers that carry visual info from the ______ portion of the retina continue on to the visual cortex of the _______ hemisphere.
A
optic chiasm; medial; lateral
15
Q
In tests with split brain patients, experiments restrict visual stimulus to _____ hemisphere.
A
one
16
Q
Name one of the 3 methodological consideration researchers must take into account when conducting experiments with split-brain patients.
A
Cross cueing, when one hemisphere initiates a behavior and the other hemisphere detects it externally (not intentional) giving it a cue about the answer
These are already unique patients w/ neurological damage considering they had epilepsy
Amount of resection(amount removed)
17
Q
The ability to understand that others have thoughts, beliefs, and desires that may differ from your own
A
Theory of Mind
18
Q
What is the critical structure for Theory of Mind?
A
temporal-parietal junction in the right hemisphere (TJP)
19
Q
T/F: Both hemispheres are engaged in Theory of Mind
A
true
20
Q
Aside from the TPJ, what other 2 regions are activated in Theory of Mind?
A
mPFC and pSTS (posterior superior temp sulcus)
21
Q
T/F: emotional information is transferred across the corpus callosum
A
False, both hemispheres have access to it
22
Q
T/F: Right hemisphere is typically the “interpreter”
A
False, left hemisphere is, however for illusory contours RH can
23
Q
Split brain patient is given a command to the right hemisphere to stand up. They stand up. If you were to ask them why they stood up, what would they say?
A
they’d make something up, the left hemisphere “interpreter” has to come up with a reason
24
Q
If a image is shown to your left visual field, what hemisphere does it go to?
A
right
25
The left hemisphere's need to interpret and come up with explanations can contribute to ________
false memories
26
Who claimed Both hemispheres can detect familiar stimuli and new unrelated stimuli, but LH tends to detect false positives when the new stimuli are related?
**Phelps** & Gazzaniga
27
Language is lateralized in the ________ hemisphere
left
28
((?????))))If you have a complete severance of the hemispheres are you able to verbalize information (coming from right?)
no
29
Inability to recognize faces, including one's own
prosopagnosia
30
Fusiform area is responsible for what
face recognition
31
Faces are processed _________ in the _______ hemisphere
holistically; right
32
Perception and recognition are better for faces presented upright as opposed to inverted. What is this effect called?
Similarly, its hard for our brains to notice a difference when a face is turned upside down but the features remain upright, what is this called?
Face Inversion effect (FIE);
Thatcher Effect
33
T/F: Monkeys fail to show a decrease in preformance when faces are inverted
true
34
The now debunked idea that children process faces in a piecemeal fashion is called what?
Encoding Switch Hypothesis
35
T/F: Processing faces holistically likely preceeds part based processing of faces
true
36
Prosopagnosia is typically acquired through _________ and is an example of __________ (anterograde/retrograde/both) amnesia.
brain damage; Both antero and retrograde amnesia
37
T/F: People with prosopagnosia have difficulty consciously recognizing faces, even subconsciously they show no recognition of the faces
False,
studies have shown that they are subconsciously recognizing the faces in that there is a skin conductance response when they see the faces of people they know
38
Face perception emerges from ______ input and ________. Through sensation (visual stimulation), we create representations (percepts). Therefore, * Prosopagnosia is a failure to match _______ input to ____________.
sensory; recognition; sensory; representations
39
When the top half of one face is aligned with the bottom half of another, and presented upright, the resulting composite arrangement is interpreted as a novel face. What is this illusion called?
Composite face illusion
40
Infants who learned to recognize monkey faces which were individually labeled (named) over a 3 month period ___________(maintained/lost) the ability to discriminate monkey faces. However infants who learned the monkey faces categorically (all labeled monkey, or not labeled at all) showed a _________(increase/decline) in the ability to discriminate monkey faces.
Maintained; decline
41
sensory receptors are on ______ organs
sensory
42
Sensory info (aside from olfaction) goes from thalamus to _____________ regions.
primary sensory
43
Receptor cells do not become active until the stimulus exceeds a minimum ___________.
intensity level (threshold)
44
How well we can distinguish among stimuli within a sensory modality
acuity
45
Acuity depends on the _____________ of receptors.
number and distribution
46
Visual acuity is best when the image is in the _______ of the visual field. The movement of our eyes is called ______
center; saccades
47
Can you adjust acuity based on external things? If so, give an example.
yes, squinting to see better
48
If a sensory system devotes more receptors to certain types of info, what change do we see in cortical representation?
corresponding increase in cortical representation
49
Our senses converge together and can effect each other
Multisensory integration
50
Auditory perception:
Sound waves enter ________, causing them to get _______.
Waves hit the _________, causing it to vibrate.
Vibrations travel through the __________ and rattle the __________, __________, and __________. This causes the ________ to vibrate.
These vibrations are sensed by tiny ________ along the ________ membrane of the fluid-filled ________.
Finally, the deflection of the hair cells (aka stereocilia) produces a ___________.
auditory canal; amplified; tympanic membrane (eardrum); middle ear; malleus; incus; stapes; oval window; hair cells; basilar membrane; cochlea; action potential
51
What determines the frequency tuning of a hair cell?
its location on the membrane
52
The spatial arrangement of the haircells, and hence their frequency tuning, is called __________.
tonotopy
53
What kind of receptors do hair cells act as?
mechanoreceptors
54
What is the leading cause of deafness?
loss of haircells
55
Auditory nerve projects to the __________.
cochlear nuclei
56
Each auditory nerve fiber splits to synapse in both the ______ and _______ cochlear nuclei. Info then travels up to the _____ where it splits again.
dorsal; ventral; pons
57
Axons from cochlear nuclei and olivary nuclei project to ________ in the midbrain. Then this projects to the ____________________ (auditory) in the thalamus. And then to the ___________ cortex in the temporal lobe.
inferior colliculus; medial geniculate nucleus; primary auditory
58
This orients your head towards the sound
inferior colliculus
59
Where is the primary auditory cortex?
temporal lobe
60
T/F: Where sound is processed depends on the actual sound.
true
61
Rostral A1- ____ frequency
Caudal A1- ____ frequency
low; high
62
The difference in when sound reaches each ear
Intra aural time
63
Locating specific elements in music (ex. chorus, bass) is called what
Feature Extraction
64
The opposite of Feature Extraction is what?
feature integration
65
Feature Extraction is ________ processing while Feature Integration is __________ processing.
bottom up; top down
66
It is what distinguishes instruments and also describes the way a single instrument can change sound as it moves across its range.
Timbre
67
_____ is so important that the brain represents it directly, unlike any other musical attribute
Pitch
68
T/F: Music activates numerous parts of the brain. There is no such thing as the "music center".
true
69
Part of the brain important for distinguishing Timbre
STS
70
Patients who experience temporal lobe epilepsy have reported musical ___________ to occur
hallucinations
71
Perceiving information at a distance
remote sensing
72
In the visual pathway, light passes through the ______ of the eye. The image is inverted and focused to project onto the _______.
lens; retina
73
The retina is a densely packed layer of ______
neurons
74
The deepest retinal layer is made of millions of ____________ containing _____________
photoreceptors; photopigments
75
What are the 2 types of photoreceptors?
Rods & cone
76
______ are responsible for vision at low light and are evenly distributed. And ______ are active during the daytime and detect different colors. They are packed densely near the center (fovea).
Rods; cones
77
What are the 3 types of cones and describe them briefly.
Short – responds to short wavelengths (bluish)
Medium – responds to medium wavelengths (greenish)
Long – responds to long wavelengths (reddish)
78
Light-sensitive proteins
Photopigments
79
What are the 2 types of photopigments and where are they found?
Photopsin: color vision - found in the cones
Rhodopsin: low light contrasts - found in the rods
80
What happens when a Rhodopsin is exposed to light. Describe the 2 steps leading to an action potential.
-When exposed to light they split apart.
-This causes destabilization of the photoreceptors causes depolarization of their membrane potential
-This triggers A.ps in downstream neurons (transduction)
81
Rods and cones are connected to _______ neurons.
bipolar
82
Rods and cones are connected to bipolar neurons that synapse with _______ which causes the information to get __________.
ganglion cells; compressed
83
Ganglion axons bundle to form the _______.
Cross-over of info occurs at the __________.
optic nerve; optic chiasm
84
There are 2 pathways the ganglion axons in the optic nerve help form, however, 90% of these axons are forming the ___________.
retinogeniculate pathway
85
The retinogeniculate pathway is bringing info from the ______ to the ____________ of the thalamus. Then the info travels from there to the _____________ cortex.
retina; lateral geniculate nucleus; primary visual cortex
86
!What pathway goes from the retina to the thalamus?
retinogeniculate pathway
87
!What pathway goes from the thalamus to the Secondary visual cortex?
Geniculocortical pathway
88
10% of the axons in the optic nerve are going to a different part of the thalamus called the _________ and the __________.
Pulvinar nucleus; superior colliculus
89
These are on/off edge detectors. When it's active, it indicates the position of the stimulus and the orientation of the stimulus's edge
V1
90
Region within the visual field in which stimulation affects neuron's response
receptive field
91
Receptive visual fields form_________ maps
topographical (Retinotopic)
92
As you move along in the visual system from areas (ex. V1, V2, V3) then the type of ________ the cell responds to changes
stimulation
93
Cells in retina & LGN respond best to _________-
small spots of light
94
V4 optimal stimulus becomes more complex. Give an example of a stimulus it'd respond to
Faces or shapes
95
As you go up in Visual areas (V2, V3, V4) what happens to the receptive fields?
receptive fields become larger
96
T/F: The organization of early visual areas can't be seen in people who lack vision
false
97
V5 (MT) cells do not respond to _________. But they do respond to __________
color; direction and movement
98
V5 (MT) cells respond best to __________ movement. They respond maximally when the stimulus is moved _______(slowly/quickly)
down & leftward ; quickly
99
Why do more males have colorblindness?
its a recessive gene on the X chromosome
99
Why do more males have colorblindness?
its a recessive gene on the X chromosome
100
Why do more males have colorblindness?
its a recessive gene on the X chromosome
101
3 cones working together to determine what color you’re looking at (not colorblind)
Trichromacy
102
What are the 2 most common type of colorblindness?
Anomalous trichromats & Dichromats
103
In this type of colorblindness, all 3 photopigments are present but one exhibits abnormal sensitivity
Anomalous trichromats
104
If the L or M cones are impaired, what type of colorblindness will you have?
Red green
105
If the S cone is impaired, what type of colorblindness will you have?
blue yellow
106
Individuals with only 2 photopigments
Dichromats
107
Dichromats who have red-green colorblindness are missing what?
photopigments sensitive to medium or long wavelengths
108
Dichromats who have blue-yellow colorblindness are missing what?
Blue-yellow: missing photopigment sensitive to short wavelengths (very rare)
109
Partial or total absence of color vision, involves lesions to V4
Achromatopsia
110
Loss of motion detection, view the world as a series of snapshots
Akinetopsia
111
-Perception is a synthetic process
-Coherent representation
-Coherence sometimes involves distorting the sensory info to make it all make sense (ex. McGurk effect)
Multimodal perception
112
To integrate sensory info into a coherent percept the brain prioritizes _______________ (usually visual info, e.g., McGurk effect)
the most reliable signals
113
* Multimodal site
* has topographical maps of visual, auditory, and tactile info
* Has cells that respond more to multimodal stimuli
* Spatial and temporal coincidence detection for integration
Superior colliculus
114
Has projections to and from sensory cortices.
It responds to visual, auditory, and somatosensory stimuli. It's activated during lip reading when the sound matches the movements.
STS
115
What are 5 things the STS is involved in?
STAMP!
-Speech processing
-Theory of mind
-Audiovisual (somatosensory) integration
-Motion perception
-Processing faces
116
T/F: The function of the STS is unaffected by the activation of other brain regions
false, it is
117
Can auditory and visual stimuli enhance the perception of the other sense? If so, give an example.
yes, ex. greater sense of touch because you were listening to music
118
When TMS was conducted over the visual cortex increased response time to _________
auditory stimulus
119
When TMS was conducted, phosphenes were only visible when _________ stimulus was presented
auditory
120
What is an example of an error in multimodal processing?
Synesthesia - when senses are mixed
121
What is the most common form of Synesthesia?
Grapheme-color / or colored-sequence
122
!People with Grapheme-color synesthesia are better at ____________. What is this an example of?
color discrimination; acuity
123
People with Synesthia may have visual processing areas organized in a ________ (less/more) distributed way
more (not confined to visual cortex)
124
In response to a story being read (auditory), you imagine things in your head (visual), what is this an example of?
Cross-modal plasticity/ Cortical plasticity
125
T/F: Deaf individuals show activation in the auditory cortex in response to visual and tactile stimuli.
true
126
T/F: Cross-modal plasticity can't occur when the disability is congenital
false, it usually occurs when the disability is congenital
127
Bernard Berenson noted that people tend to respond (physically) to the subject of a painting. They may unconsciously adjust their facial expression and posture to *mirror* the subject of the portrait. What is this called? What did he postulate was the reason?
Beholder’s Share; empathetic response to mirror the subject's emotional state
128
Who came up with the idea of "Beholder's share"?
Bernard Berenson
129
Beholder’s Share likely involves __________.
mirror neurons
130
Where do we see activation when someone has a moment of creativity/ insight?
Association cortices
131
When it comes to creativity what are the 3 most important cortices?
FAP! Association, Frontal and Parietal
132
Do Inhibitory and excitatory mechanisms ever interact?
yes
133
Brain damage causes the _________ of certain functions. Creativity entails the removal of inhibitions.
(ex. The left hemisphere in some ways is inhibiting the right hemisphere. So when you have a stroke in the left hemisphere, you remove that inhibition which is called disinhibition. This causes activation in the right hemisphere, which is involved in things like novelty. This can lead to creative outbursts)
disinhibition
134
Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex is involved in ____________.
So, upon deactivating it you've removed your ___________ which leads to an increase in creativity.
impulse control; inhibitions
135
Inhibitory and excitatory circuits that interact between _________ which is involved in ________ processing.
hemispheres; creative
136
When jazz musicians improvised music, they saw a deactivation of the ___________.
DLPFC
137
A collection of artworks exclusively created by the mentally ill, 70% had Schizophrenia, 30% were Bipolar.
The Heidelberg Collection
138
He made the distinction between episodic and semantic memory. Also said mental time travel is unique to humans.
Endel Tulving
139
The idea that memory isn't unitary and in fact, there are a lot of different types of memory was pioneered by who?
Larry Squire
140
Long term memory branches into __________ & _________ memory.
declarative/explicit; nondeclarative/implicit
141
What are the 4 categories of implicit memory?
She's ProPer, he has NoClass
Procedural memory, Perceptual representation system, Classical conditioning, Nonassociative learning
142
What is explicit memory also called?
What is implicit memory also called?
declarative; nondeclarative
143
What are the 2 categories of declarative memory?
Events(episodic) and Facts (semantic)
144
What is memory split into?
LTM and STM (aka sensory/working memory)
145
Learning is equated with ____________
acquisition/ encoding
146
What are the stages of memory?
Acquisition, Consolidation, Retrieval
147
T/F: Memories like a filing cabinet
false, they are malleable
148
What are the time courses of each type of memory:
Sensory- ____
STM/ working- _____
LTM Nondeclarative - _____
LTM Declarative- ______
milliseconds to seconds;
seconds to minutes;
minutes to years;
minutes to years;
149
Under sensory memory, auditory info is called _____ memory and visual info is called ______ memory
echoic; iconic
150
T/F: Short-term memory is longer than sensory memory
true
151
Can the contents of WM be obtained from sensory memory or LTM?
yes
152
Main difference between STM and WM is that info in WM is used in _________
cognitive tasks
153
Both STM and LTM activate the ________, ________, and _________ cortices. Also the sensory cortex, basal ganglia & thalamus. Research shows that oscillatory synchrony of these areas may underly WM.
prefrontal; cingulate; parietal
154
In the past, WM was predominantly associated with the PFC, however, more recent work has shown that WM is _____________
distributed across the cortex
155
What test involved WM?
Wisconsin Card Sorting Test
156
*Individuals with schizophrenia have impairments in the Wisconsin Test. This led to the hypothesis that if WM involves the PFC, Schizophrenics have a deficit in the ______. However, we now know this test actually tests more than just WM such as ___________.
PFC; attention or visual processing
157
Said that information is processed linearly from Sensory --> STM --> LTM. It claimed that there are discrete stages of memory.
Atkinson & Shiffrin Modal Model of Memory
158
What are 2 cases that challenged the Modal Model of memory?
Patient K.F. had brain damage and showed impairments in STM using the digit span test. Remarkably, he was able to form long-term memories despite having problems with short-term memory. This showed a dissociation between STM and LTM. Therefore, STM may not be required to form LTM
Patient E.E. also had damage, he also showed a deficit of STM abilities but the preservation of LTM.
159
Which patient(s) had Double Dissociation?
Patient H.M
160
The central executive mechanism coordinates interactions between two subordinate STM stores (the phonological loop & the visuospatial “sketch pad”) and LTM
Baddeley & Hitch WM Model
161
Describe the Visuospatial “sketch pad” – visual/spatial code of the Baddeley & Hitch WM Model. What does it suggest?
If given a list, people perform better when they have visual imagery to remember it compared to an auditory memory strategy. However, if you then introduce auditory interference it will interfere more than visual interference.
This suggested that there is a distinction between verbal and visual WM, and that memory is not a unitary system.
162
Describe the Phonological loop – acoustic code of the Baddeley & Hitch WM Model. What does it suggest?
Recall of words is easier when they don’t sound similar, because if you had words that sounded similar to each other this would provide interference.
This suggests that WM uses an acoustic code rather than a semantic (definitions) code
163
Patients with lesions on ____________
have deficits in phonological working
memory: They cannot hold strings of
words in working memory.
Brodmann area 40
164
In the phonological loop, the rehearsal process involves a region called ___________
Brodmann area 44
165
What areas of the left hemisphere network are involved in phonological working memory?
lateral frontal and inferior parietal lobes
166
He said “working memory is not STM, what is special about WM is volition”
Earl Miller
167
Initially hypothesized that WM was maintained by persistant action potentials (spiking); later evidence suggested that WM spiking is not as persistent as once thought. What was this idea called?
Sustained representations
168
In contrast with the Sustained Representations (persistent spiking) model, this model says WM is maintained by spikes that “refresh” the memory. This has functional advantages over persistent spiking.
Activity-silent models
169
Memories held by persistent spiking alone (Sustained representation model) can be easily _________ because they are lost when activity
is disrupted. While the memory is spiking the memory is in a ___________ state.
changed; vulnerable
170
T/F: Models of sparse/"on and off" spiking (A-S models) have trouble holding more than one memory at a time.
False, models of persistent spiking (S.R) have trouble holding more than one memory at a time
171
T/F: Neurons optimize information when they spike sparsely and in bursts, not persistently.
true
172
Why does WM have a limited capacity?
If too many items are simultaneously held,
it causes a buildup of interference due to
competition for the limited time available for
the refresh – capacity is limited because of the
coding scheme
173
What are the 2 models explainig why WM has a limited capacity?
Resource Model & Slot Model
174
The more things you have to hold in WM, the less activation energy you can devote to each item.
Resource Model (Why does WM have a limited capacity)
175
Only a certain amount of slots, phenomenon is all or none – a stimulus is encoded (remembered) or not, no partial information is acquired *unlike resource model*.
Slot Model
176
T/F: The slot model is the approved explanation as to why WM has a limited capacity
False, both the slot and resource models are correct
177
What are the advantages of the activity silent model?
-memories are less vulnerable when they're not persistently firing
-can hold more than one memory at a time.
-Neurons optimize information when they spike sparsely and in bursts, not persistently.
178
T/F: Chunking is a form of compression and requires less space in WM
true
179
T/F: LTM can be retained for your whole life
true
180
Memory for events and facts, both personal and general, to which we have conscious access, and can verbally report
Declarative memory
181
H.M. was impaired in forming new _________ memories, we know that this capacity depends on the ___________ lobe
declarative; medial temporal
182
Endel Tulving said declarative memory
be split into ________ and ________ memory
episodic; semantic
183
Autobiographical memory can be split into ______ & ________
episodic autobiographical memory & nonepisodic (semantic)
184
Memory that pertains to yourself, and it can be
episodic or semantic
autobiographical memory
185
Knowing something about yourself but not remembering the experience is what kind of memory?
Semantic Autobiographical memory
186
This type of memory is objective factual knowledge (e.g., capital of Lebanon is Beirut)
Semantic
187
T/F: One difference between episodic and semantic is that episodic memory includes associated
contextual info relating to the place it was learned/experienced
true
188
Comprises memories of events that the person has
experienced that include contextual elements: e.g., what happened, where it happened, when, and with whom
Episodic
189
T/F: Episodic memory is synonymous with personal knowledge
false
190
T/F: Schemas come from semanticization of memories
true
191
Having an idea of what a certain concept (ex. birthday) is called a what
schema
192
(CHECK)Schema involves what parts of the brain?
mostly hippocampus but also the prefrontal cortex.
193
!List 5 examples of Non-declarative memory
Procedural memory, Priming, conditioning, habituation, sensitization
194
You don’t have conscious access to this type of memory and it can not be expressed verbally
Non-declarative memory (implicit)
195
What 2 things make up nonassociative learning?
Habituation and sensitization
196
Draw out the flowchart of Nondeclarative memory starting from LTM.
LTM: Declarative and Nondeclarative
Nondeclarative- procedural memory, perceptual Representation system, classical conditioning, nonassociative learning (ProPer NoClass)
procedural memory--> skills (motor & cognitive)
PRS --> priming
Classical conditioning--> conditioning
Nonassociative Learning--> Habituation, Sensitization
197
When a memory is highly contextual it requires the _________ so as it becomes more schematized it becomes __________ (more/less) dependent on the hippocampus and ________ (more/less) dependent on cortical structure (PFC).
hippocampus; less; more
198
T/F: After a memory is decontextualized (semanticized) you can't recontextualize it
false
199
Motor skills (e.g., riding a bike) or Cognitive skills (ex. reading)
Procedural memory
200
The theory that memories get reorganized to become less dependent on the hippocampus as they become semanticized size or schematized
Systems Consolidation
201
Procedural memory relies on ___________ loops
cortical-basal ganglia
202
H.M. could not form new _________ memories but could form new _________ memories
declarative; procedural
203
The phenomenon whereby exposure to one stimulus subconsciously influences a response to a subsequent stimulus
Priming effect
204
In Priming, exposure to the ________ stimulus subconsciously influences a response to the __________ stimulus
priming; target
205
!H.M. benefitted from _______ suggesting it is medial temporal-lobe independent
priming
206
_________ is specific for the sensory modality of the learning and test phases
Priming
207
Greater advantage will be conferred when the priming stimulus is presented visually if the subsequent test is also ______; the same for auditory stimuli
visual
208
Patient H.M. benefitted from priming and his impairments were in the medial temporal lobe, how does this show a single dissociation?
because the priming was independent of the MTL
209
Is it possible for brain lesions to affect the PRS while leaving long-term memory intact? What evidence proves or disproves this?
yes, patient M.S had impairment in priming but not in LTM
210
What did Patient M.S. show? What kind of dissociation was it?
showed that Brodmann's areas 17,18 & 19 are important for priming because they had lesioned them and they showed impairments in priming;
Double Dissociation
211
T/F: Conceptual priming lasts longer than perceptual features
false
212
Is conceptual priming different from declarative memory? Are we consciously aware of it?
Yes; No
213
The prime and target are different words from the same semantic category, it lasts only a few seconds (based on semantic associations)
Semantic Priming
214
Classical Conditioning is ___________ (associative/nonassociative) learning.
associative
215
A neutral stimulus (ex. a bell), becomes a ____________ through repeated pairing with an __________ (ex. food) that elicits an ____________ (ex. salivating)
conditioned stimulus; unconditioned stimulus; unconditioned stimulus
216
In classical conditioning:
A learned association emerges, and the _______ acquires properties that facilitate retrieval of the conditioned memory in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus. Thus, re-exposure to the conditioned stimulus demonstrates this learned relationship (ex. dog salivates in the presence of the bell alone)
conditioned stimulus
217
Conditioned stimulus and Unconditioned Stimulus overlap, with Conditioned Stimulus starting first and both ending at the same time
Delay conditioning
218
Conditioned Stimulus precedes Unconditioned Stimulus. Gap between when Conditioned Stimulus ends, and Unonditioned Stimulus presentation begins
Trace conditioning
219
Conditioned Stimulus precedes Unconditioned Stimulus. Gap between when Conditioned Stimulus ends and Unconditioned Stimulus presentation begins
Trace conditioning
220
Delay conditioning is _______(HPC independent/ dependent).
Trace conditioning is _______(HPC independent/ dependent).
HPC independent; HPC dependent
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T/F: Not all associative learning depends on the HPC
true
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What type of conditioning is used to study fear-related behaviors?
Fear conditioning
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The diminishing of a physiological response to a repeated stimulus
Habituation
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Who developed a novel theory for sensory habituation? They proposed that the memory engrams for habituation experience may in fact be ensembles of inhibitory neurons forming to provide a “negative image” of the excitatory ensembles that mediate the perception of environmental stimuli.
Cooke and Ramaswami
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In habituation, if the stimulus is withheld, the response tends to _______(fade away/recover) over time
recover
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In habituation, the ______ (stronger/weaker) the stimulus, the more rapid and/or more pronounced is the habituation.
weaker
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T/F: Presentation of another (usually strong) stimulus results in recovery of the habituated response (dishabituation)
true
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T/F: Habituation isn't gated: it occurs more efficiently if reward, punishment, or strong emotional engagement occurs together with stimulus exposure
False, Habituation *is* gated: it occurs *less* efficiently if reward, punishment, or strong emotional
engagement occurs together with stimulus exposure
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With the enhancement of a physiological response to a repeated stimulus, the organism becomes more responsive to the same stimulus. The flipside of habituation (its enhancement, more response to a lower level of the stimulus)
Sensitization
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Sensitization in sea slug: A tactile stimulus applied to the siphon elicits a __________ reflex. This was discovered by a neuroscientist named __________.
gill withdrawal; Eric Kandel
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The processing of incoming information which creates memory traces or ”engrams” via biochemical changes (e.g., changes in synaptic strength and connections)
Encoding
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Gazzaniga describes encoding as a two-process system, what are the 2 steps?
1. Acquisition
2. Consolidation
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Encoding creates memory traces aka ________
engrams
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In Acquisition, sensory info is coming in, being filtered, some information will go onto to ______or ______
STM or LTM
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The stabilization of memory traces via plasticity. It is how memory goes from STM (or sensory memory) to LTM.
Consolidation
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Retention (preservation) of memory traces, opposite of decay
Storage
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Successfully accessing memory traces for use; drives decision-making and behavior
Retrieval
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The idea that memories are “consolidated” came from two major findings, what are they?
1. Brain damage/trauma --> post-traumatic amnesia
* Retrograde amnesia
* Anterograde amnesia
2. Resection of the hippocampus caused anterograde and retrograde amnesia (Scoville & Milner, 1957)
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The process by which the hippocampus guides the
reorganization of the information stored in the neocortex such that it eventually becomes independent of the hippocampus
Systems consolidation
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With hippocampal damage, typically, ______(new/old) memories will stay intact, while the ______ (oldest/newest) memories are disrupted
old; nuest
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When you have hippocampal damage, the oldest memories will stay intact bc they're less dependent on the hippocampus. This temporal gradient is called what?
"Oldest memories survive the best"
Ribot's Law
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The neurosurgeon who performed the bilateral hippocampal resection surgery on H.M.
William Scoville:
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The neurosurgeon who performed the bilateral hippocampal resection surgery on H.M.
William Scoville
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H.M. had normal ____ and______ memory but impaired _______ memory
STM; working memory; LTM
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The neurosurgeon known for his work on the cortical homunculus, hallucinations, & déjà vu
Wilder Penfield
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Penfield's Student, also the primary researcher who studied Henry after his surgery.
Brenda Milner
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Milner’s student, Henry’s primary researcher after Milner
Suzanne Corkin
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The ___________ theory explained that old memories don’t depend on the HPC, which is why they are preserved, however new memories require the HPC.
systems consolidation
249
Systems consolidation theory is the process by which the HPC guides the reorganization of the info stored in the neocortex such that it eventually becomes
independent of the HPC. What is this model in particular called?
(standard model of Larry Squire)
250
Organized group of past experiences create an archetype or motif called a what
Schema
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The assumption of _________ theory, is old memories are still depend on the HPC but are more resistant to disruption because they have had more opportunities to be reactivated
multiple trace theory
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the theory that merged the standard systems consolidation model and multiple trace theory.
competitive trace theory
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Memory traces are both in the hippocampus and PFC there are 2 traces, hence the name, every time you remember something you create a new trace. Each reactivation creates a new index in the hippocampus and because these copies are distributed across cortical areas, therefore the memory can survive partial damage.
"memory survives cause there are so many traces of it"
Multiple Trace theory
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Hippocampus plays a critical role in ______(new/old) memories
new
255
Both computations seem to rely on the hippocampus proper, but they also seem to be instantiated by distinct hippocampal subfields. from computational neuroscience
Pattern completion and pattern separation
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Representational reinstatement of an episodic memory trace upon receiving only a partial cue (only part of the memory trace is activated). Generating an entire memory from only part of the memory trace
Pattern completion
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Representational orthogonalization (separation) of
episodic memory traces upon receiving highly similar
inputs (leading to a high degree of mnemonic
discrimination for similar events).
The ability to store and disambiguate events that are
highly similar by using a code in the brain where the
cells that correspond to those events are memory traces that are completely unique (This is new)
Where does this occur?
Pattern separation; dentate gyrus
258
Hippocampal tri-synaptic loops were discovered by who
Cajal
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DLPFC is responsible for what
impuls
260
A memory is brought back to the forefront and it's vulnerable again, doesn't happen every time u remember, but typically in the presence of new info coming in
Reconsolidation
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There's competition btwn the traces and the ones in the cortex win bc the older memories become more semanticized
competitive
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The phenomenon where adults have difficulty recalling
memories of early childhood, even though very young children are capable of forming memories. This was established by who?
Infantile amnesia; Freud
263
Capacity to form and verbally recall ________ memories gradually emerges as an infant develops (from 24–36 months of age)
declarative
264
Memory retention _________(increases/decreases) linearly with age
increases
265
The hypothesis that infantile amnesia is due to high levels of hippocampal neurogenesis. This hypothesis predicts that integration of these “new neurons” degrades existing memories by either increasing the excitability (and therefore instability) of hippocampal memory networks or replacing synaptic connections in pre-existing hippocampal memory circuits
Neurogenic hypothesis
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The hypothesis that infantile amnesia is due to high levels of neurogenesis in the ___________. This hypothesis predicts that integration of these “new neurons” degrades existing memories by either _______(increasing/decreasing) the excitability (and therefore instability) of hippocampal memory networks or ________________ in pre-existing hippocampal memory circuits
hippocampus; increasing; replacing synaptic connections
267
This might facilitate the formation of new memories by increasing capacity and reducing interference between old, irrelevant memories and to-be-encoded information. Ability to block irrelevant information reduces the demands on the brain when trying to
recall important information
adaptive forgetting
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The biological basis of memory. Learning, the process of memory encoding, involves a physical change in the brain.
Engrams
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Who searched for the engram?
What emerged instead was a search for _______ mechanisms that enable the formation, modulation, and retrieval of engrams.
Karl Lashley; plasticity
270
Who created the Neural Network theory *memory resides in cell assemblies* formed by strengthening synaptic connections to form neural networks
Donald Hebb
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_____ & ________ found evidence for Hebb’s law. By applying high frequency stimulation to certain axons, they observed an increase in the magnitude of _______ (greater synaptic strength) – granule cell response was larger with later stimulation. This was called Long term potentiation.
Timothy Bliss & Terje Lømo ;EPSPs
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______ is a [long term] increase in strength & synaptic transmission between two neurons following brief but intense stimulation. It was discovered by Timothy Bliss & Terje Lømo.
LTP
273
Opposite of LTP
Long-term depression
274
LTP is ___________-dependent
protein synthesis
275
LTP is able to occur because of the interaction between 2 receptors which are: _____________ and _______________ receptors.
glutamate AMPA receptors; NMDA receptors
276
The more AMPA receptors there are, the more ___________ (polarized/depolarized) the cell is. Once it reaches a significant level of this, the Mg2+ ion that's blocking the NMDA receptor is removed. This allows the influx of ________ into the cell through the NMDA receptor.
depolarized; Ca2+
277
You can block LTP from occurring by blocking ______.
NMDA receptors
278
Certain hippocampal cells fire only when an animal is in a specific location in the local environment, but never elsewhere. What are they called?
place cells
279
The geographical location at which these place cells fire is referred to as the cell’s__________
place field
280
T/F: By recording the firing patterns of multiple place cells – you can predict the exact location of an animal at all times
true
281
Whereas single-place cells fire in only one location in an environment, these cells fire in multiple positions, creating a hexagonal firing pattern tessellating the area explored by the animal. Basic unit of this system’s grid is not squares, but equilateral triangles in the shape of a hexagon.
Grid Cells
282
T/F: Neurons transiently decrease their firing rate during sleep
False, they increase
283
________________ refers to the re-occurrence of a sequence of cell activations that also occurred during learning, but in a temporally compressed way.
(Basically: Sequence of cells that already fired during the day when the animal learned something, they re-fired when the animal was sleeping)
-Maybe in the same order, or in reverse
-Thought to be involved in systems consolidation
Sequences of activations have also been found to occur before the actual activity, in a way that predicts the sequence; this is called ________
Hippocampal replay; preplay
284
* Participants were presented with 50 pictures of *objects* at different locations on a computer matched with a related *sound* (cat + meowing)
* They're given a test where they're only presented with the sound, they have to remember the objects
* They then napped; while napping they were presented with sounds, half they already heard, half new
* Result: They remembered the locations for the sounds they were presented with during sleep better
What did this study suggest?
We can learn while we are sleeping and when we don't sleep, it affects memory in a bad way
285
The Morris Water Maze tests what?
spatial memory
286
What 2 hormones are associated with mammalian stress response?
Cortisol and norepinephrine
287
Stress can memory blank and potentiate memory through reconsolidation, a period of time when memories are modifiable following their reactivation
consolidation
288
T/F: Memory reconsolidation is one way
true
289
The guy who couldn't forget
Patient S.
