misery Flashcards
1
Q
List the 5 Methods in Neuroscience (GE COP)
A
- Genetic Manipulations
- Electrophysiology
- Chemogenetics
- Optogenetics
- Pharamcology
2
Q
List the methods to measure neural function
A
- en vivo calcium imaging
- fiber photometry
- electrophysiology
3
Q
How are the methods of neuroscience and the methods to measure neural function different?
A
Methods in neuro is meant to perturb while methods of measuring neural function is just for observation
4
Q
What are brainwaves?
A
The rhythmic/repetitive electrical energy is generated spontaneously and in response to stimuli from the CNS. They promote the precise temporal coordination of processes relating to cognition, memory, perception and behavior
5
Q
What can you detect with EEG? Give 2 examples of diseases that can be detected using it.
A
abnormal brain wave patterns. Ex. Epilepsy, MS
6
Q
_______ are short segments of EEG data that are time-locked to particular events and typically averaged over many trials of an experiment.
A
ERP (Event-related potential)
7
Q
What is EEG?
A
EEG is a continuous measure of electrical brain activity.
8
Q
50-100ms
A
sensory
9
Q
N100 & P100
A
selective attention
10
Q
N200
A
unexpected stimulus
11
Q
P300 (most common one thats tested)
A
attend to stimulus
12
Q
What is Positron Emission Tomography (PET) used to measure/visualize? Describe how it works
A
It measures changes in blood flow.
First, radioactive tracers are injected into the bloodstream. More blood is directed to areas of the brain with higher metabolic activity so more tracer ends up there. There’s a release of positrons, which collide with electrons and form gamma rays. PET detects gamma rays. The results are shown as changes in regional Cerebral Blood Flow.
13
Q
!Our brain’s interference can constrain information processing. Give and define an example
A
Stroop effect, when you have a delay in reaction time between congruent and incongruent stimuli (ex. if the word GREEN is written in red marker)
14
Q
Give 5 examples of brain damage with clinical significance
A
-aneurysm
-tumor
-degenerative disorders
-bacterial/viral disorders
-traumatic brain injury
15
Q
When studying the damaged brain, what do imaging & cognitive tests assess?
A
vision, executive control, motor skills, language and memory
16
Q
Callostomy
A
split brain
17
Q
3 major ways we like to study the brain
A
Brain damage
Imaging & cognitive tests
Lesions
18
Q
What did studying lesions show us?
A
Removing a connection or a part of the brain and seeing an impairment doesn’t always mean that that part of the brain is involved in that process.
19
Q
When recalling their traumatic plane crash, survivors of Flight 236 had which brain regions light up? When happened when researchers showed them 9/11 footage?
A
Amygdala, hippocampus, frontal & posterior regions
Similar regions lit up
20
Q
What is fMRI? It has high resolution with good contrast between ___________.
A
a non invasive method for mapping the brain;
different tissues
21
Q
What happens in an MRI?
A
The nucleus of a hydrogen atom behaves like a small magnet. When you lay in the strong magnetic field of an MRI system all the hydrogen protons in your body (most of which are in water) align with that magnetic field.
22
Q
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
A
in an MRI, the hydrogen protons can be manipulated so they generate a signal that can be mapped
23
Q
How does an fMRI work?
A
When a radio frequency magnetic pulse is applied, protons are perturbed. This creates a brief faint signal (the MR signal) that is detected by the radio frequency coils in the MRI system. When the signal is turned off, the protons release their energy and the fMRI can detect this electromagnetic signal. The signal coming from hydrogen nuclei varies in strength depending on the surroundings. Now we can discriminate between grey matter, white matter and cerebral spinal fluid in parts of the brain.
24
Q
Density of _____ is much greater in ________ matter.
A
protons; grey
25
If blood is more ________ signal is slightly stronger.
oxygenated
26
In fMRI, we see that areas of the brain that are ________ tend to receive higher levels of _________ blood.
more active; oxygenated
27
What is the basis for fMRI?
blood-oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) effect
28
When neural activity increases, ______ also increases (about 1%)
MR signal
29
fMRI data analyzed to identify brain areas where MR signal has a matching pattern of change. ok? ok.
Also know that fMRI requires huge data sets.
repeat it
30
What are some limitations of fMRI?
- Expensive
* Person must be completely
still
* Cannot be used with
patients who have metallic
devices
* Small sample sizes - lots of
variability
* High level of false positives
* Lack of independent
replication of experiments
* Poor temporal resolution
* Huge data sets
31
Electrophysiology measures _______
spike trains (action potentials)
32
Connectivity Maps capture ______________ between brain regions
correlated patterns of activity
33
The map of neural connections in the brain
connectome
34
Whats a method to make tissue transparent
acrylamide-based hydrogels
35
Whats (3) done with post-mortem tissue to make it transparent?
* Lipid content is removed, proteins and nucleic acids remain intact
* Requires a transparent scaffolding (made of acrylamide)
* Stabilized with formaldehydes
36
Immunostaining provides.....
contrast for imaging
37
Deep brain stimulation (DBS)
* Invasive procedure
* Electrodes are implanted in your brain to modulate neuronal activity
--* Successful results for Parkinson’s
38
How does Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) work?
* Capacitor sends electric current to coil, which generates a magnetic field
Magnetic field propagates through the layers of scalp and skull altering the electrical activity (oscillations) of cortical neurons
* With a modest level of stimulation, the neurons fire
39
What is Optogenetics?
Using light to control the activity of neurons that have been genetically modified to respond to light
40
The neurons are modified using different types of_______ resulting in _____________ to be inserted into the
____________.
viruses; light sensitive opsin ; cell membrane
41
Viruses are used to transfect neurons with light
sensitive proteins called _______.
opsins
42
These proteins (opsins) were originally discovered in _______ & _________.
algae; bacteria
43
These opsin proteins respond to different_______________. Give an example of an opsin protein and what activates it.
wavelengths of light
Ex. ChR2 which can be turned on by 450nm blue light
44
The freshwater algea Chlamydomonas seek out places with favorable light conditions. It does this using a channel sensitive protein called channelrhodopsin
45
Microbial opsins can also either be __________ or ___________. Give an example of each.
excitatory; inhibitory
ChR2 – excitatory; eArchT3.0 & eNpHR3.0 – inhibitory
46
What happens when you shine blue light on cells that express ChR2? What happens when you shine green light on cells that express eArchT3.0 (or yellow light on eNpHR3.0 cells) ?
those cells will “turn on” or depolarize;
those cells will be inhibited or hyperpolarized
47
ChR2 is an ionotropic ion-channel that allows _________ to enter the cell producing an __________.
sodium; action potential
48
ArchT3.0 is an ion-channel that allows ________ to enter the cell,
inhibiting an ____________.
chloride; action potentials
49
In order to shine light on these cells in living animals, researchers give the ______________ (which can take several weeks to
express), as well as implanting an _____________ that delivers
light via a laser beam
viral injection; optic fiber
50
Often, opsins are fused to a ______________ like GFP or RFP.
fluorescent reporter
51
Give 2 examples of florescent reporters.
GFP and RFP
52
When you put fluorescent proteins into living cells
you can visualize their location using immunohistochemistry and fluorescence microscopy. OK?
ok
53
If you are interested in activating a specific type of cell (e.g., those involved in a specific experience) you can use a _____________ system.
Tet-on or Tet-off
54
What is main idea of the Tet-on/ Tet-off system?
Tetracycline-inducible expression. Using tetracycline you can control which cells you turn on and off. It is INDUCTIBLE and ACTIVITY DEPENDENT.
55
How does the Tet-on/ Tet-off system work? Describe.
1. Animal is injected with virus that allows for expression of TRE (tetracycline response element).
- When tetracycline is NOT present: tTA can bind to TRE and cause the expression of the light sensitive opsins (like ChR2 and the fused fluorescent reporter GFP)
- When tetracycline IS present: tTA is blocked from binding to TRE so nothing is expressed
56
The neuronal tagging system is activity-dependent because the entire sequence is driven by the gene ________ , which
means any cell that expresses it, now expresses ChR2 & GFP (presuming no tetracycline / doxycycline present)
c-Fos
57
The neuronal marker of activity is ________.
(c-Fos) a promoter
58
When you resume animal’s diet containing tetracycline (DOX), the tagging window ________ - no additional cells will express the opsin or the reporter
closes.
59
One of the great things about Optogenetics is that it provides precision down to the _____________.
millisecond
60
____________ has been useful in learning how the brain compensates when a certain pathway or subset of cells is not accessible.
Optogenetics
61
Since the effects of Optogenetics are ________ (immediately upon light removal) we can use ______________ in comparing light-off and light-on epochs
reversible; within-subject designs
62
Why is Optogenetics “artificial stimulation"
we are stimulating all the cells at once and not mimicking the temporal sequence with which cells are activated
63
In in vitro studies, illumination is relatively _______, as the light path is not obstructed.
However, attaining sufficient illumination to activate optogenetic systems in vivo can be challenging. Various molecules and structures in tissues scatter, absorb, and reflect light differently, which leads to large variations in _______________.
easy; light penetration
64
What is the most significant factor diminishing light penetration in biological tissues?
Scattering
65
__________ wavelengths scatter more. Therefore, the tissue penetration of __________(blue/red) is low compared to ____________(blue/red).
Shorter; blue; red
66
Main determining factor for scattering is the ______________ in the area, as cell nuclei scatter light much more than axons and dendrites.
density of cells
67
Optogenetics has:
1. Furthered the fundamental scientific understanding of how __________________________________________.
certain cell types contribute to the function of biological tissues;
68
Optogenetics has:
2. Identified many _____________ in vivo important for a wide variety of behaviors.
neural circuits
69
Optogenetics has:
3. Led to a variety of clinical insights. Give examples of these clinical insights.
anxiety, retinal disorders, memory impairments, Parkinson’s disease
70
What does DREADDS stand for in Chemogenetics?
Designer Receptors Exclusively Activated by Designer Drugs
71
What are DREADDs and what do they do?
They are modified G-protein coupled *receptor* (GPCR)
----> interacts with previously unrecognized, biologically inert, small molecule chemical actuators *drug* ----> results in *increase/decrease of neural activity*
72
DREADDS is _______ than optogenetics.
slower
73
*A primary difference between DREADDs and optogenetics is the degree of ___________________________ in controlling neuronal activity. DREADDs are ideally suited for ___________ modulation
degree of temporal specificity; prolonged
74
Current techniques, such as in vivo electrophysiology, can record neural activity with spike-timed precision, but they cannot localize the activity of large populations of individual cells or identify cell types.
______________ enables visualization of activity of hundreds of neurons simultaneously using fluorescent activity sensors
Ca2+ imaging
75
_________ is a green fluorescent Genetically Encoded
Calcium Indicator (GECI).
It contains a _____________ residue which binds __________.
This causes a __________________ when Ca2+ is bound.
GCaMP ;
CaM (calmodulin)
Ca2+
Conformational change
76
In In vivo Ca2+ imaging:
Changes in ______________ indicate fluctuations in ________________, which is an indirect indicator of neural activity
fluorescence; intracellular Ca2+
77
In which technique does an indicator get excited by a light source and hence emits its own light?
Fiber photometry
78
When an ___________ is bound to a ligand it emits more light than when unbound (change in fluorescence). The recorded result is a trace of _____________ sensitive to the amount of ligand present for your indicator which increases in a way that correlates with action potentials in target neurons
indicator; relative fluorescence
79
In Fiber Photometry, the recorded result is a trace of relative fluorescence which is sensitive to the amount of _______ present for your ________ which increases in a way that correlates with action potentials in target neurons
ligand; indicator
80
In _______________, the recorded result is a trace of relative fluorescence which is sensitive to the amount of ligand present for your indicator which increases in a way that correlates with __________________________.
Fiber Photometry; action potentials in target neurons
81
What are the 3 aspects of cognitive control?
Working memory, response inhibition, relational reasoning
82
Working memory, Response inhibition, and Relational reasoning are all examples of ________ functions.
executive
83
During adolescence, you are likely to increase _________ and have a greater sensitivity to ______________.
risk-taking; peer group influence
84
Increased risk-taking and higher sensitivity to peer group influence are mostly ______________, in that they stimulate learning and contribute to mature social functioning. However, it can also become _____________, such as resulting in drug abuse.
adaptive; maladaptive
85
During a Working Memory task, adults show more activation in the __________________cortex & ___________________cortex compared to children.
lateral prefronal cortex ; posterior parietal cortex
86
!What 2 regions of the brain are important for Working memory?
Frontal and Parietal regions
87
!What part of the brain (a gyrus) is important for inhibitory control?
Right Inferior Frontal Gyrus
88
!Complex cognitive control & relational reasoning relies on the _____________________ cortex.
Anterior Prefrontal Cortex
89
Ravens Progressive Matrices is a test administered to measure ____________ reasoning.
relational
90
!Value of reward: ventromedial_________, PCC (what does this stand for) , Ventral_____________.
PFC; posterior cingulate cortex; striatum
91
There's more activity in an adolescent's *Insula and Dorsomedial PFC* which are involved in ________________.
level of risk
92
Functional coupling of the striatum and the OFC are linked to _____________.
risky behavior
93
The Lateral Prefrontal Cortex is involved in _______________. Whereas the Ventral Striatum is involved in ______________________.
delayed reward; immediate reward
94
Face processing abilities increase during adolecense.
There is an increased functional connectivity between the Fusiform Gyrus (related to ___________) and the Superior Temporal Sulcus (related to_____________)
identity/recognizing faces; emotional context
95
Understanding the mental state of others is _____________.
mentalizing
96
The Temporoparietal junction (TPJ), superior temporal sulcus (STS) & dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) are all involved in ______________. With age, you see less activation of ___________.
mentalizing; dmPFC
97
!The ability to change structurally (anatomically) in response to a mismatch between capacity (supply) and environmental demands is called
plasticity
98
!Functional capacity based on existing functional supply is called
flexibility
99
The birth of new neurons
neurogenesis
100
T/F:
Adult neurogenesis still occurs, but at lower levels than in development.
true
101
T/F:
In early development, neuronal loss doesn't occur.
false, many neurons undergo apoptosis in early development
102
The formation of new synapses is called _________. The elimination of synapses is called __________.
synaptogenesis; pruning
103
The peak number of synapses in the brain is reached ______________(in adolecense/adulthood/postnatally).
postnatally
104
Myelination mostly takes place____________ (prenatally/ postnatally).
postnatally
105
Loss of myelin is associated with the degenerative disorder _____________.
MS
106
T/F:
Brain development is effected by prenatal AND postnatal factors.
true
107
During a Working Memory task, adults show more activation in the __________________cortex & ___________________cortex compared to children.
lateral prefrontal cortex; posterior parietal cortex
108
4 interconnected cavities are called what
ventricles
109
The Protective membranes of the brain are called
meninges
110
Grey matter is composed of ____________
White matter is composed of _____________.
neuronal cell bodies; axons (myelin)
111
Axons are organized into tracts or bundles. Cross
hemispheric projections are called _______________.
(e.g., main one: corpus callosum)
commissures
112
The medulla houses ____________. The Medulla is responsible for respiration, heart rate, and arousal.
cranial nerves.
113
The ______ is the connection between the brain & cerebellum. Sensory info passes through here. It also modulates pain.
Pons
114
The ___________ contains 2/3 of the neurons in the brain. And is important for balance & posture.
Cerebellum
115
The ________ contains periaqueductal gray (PAG) which is important for responding to threat; modulates pain, fear & anxiety.
midbrain
116
The __________ contains superior and inferior colliculi.
________________ locating and orienting toward auditory stimuli.
________________ is for perceiving objects in the periphery and orienting our gaze directly toward them, bringing them into sharper view.
Midbrain; Inferior Colliculus; Superior Colliculus
117
The ________ is like the "Grand Central Station" of the brain. All sensory info (except olfactory) relay in here before heading to primary cortical sensory areas.
Thalamus
118
The ____________ is the floor of 3rd ventricle. It is the main link between the nervous system & endocrine system. Its crucial for hormone production/control and circadian rhythms.
Hypothalamus
119
What is responsible for anxiety, stress, fear, sex drive, thirst, and hunger.
hypothalamus
120
Name this gland.
Produces hormones --> blood circulation --> influence many behaviors
Pituitary gland
121
Limbic System:
The classical limbic system was first discovered by ________
Papez believed the limbic system was important for ___________.
When you think Amygdala, OFC, and Basal ganglia, think ______________.
Thomas Willis
Emotion
Paul McLean
122
What is the functions of the limbic system?
Fun fact: it is the most capable of ____________
Memory, emotion, social information, motivation, as well as Pain, smell/taste
* Most capable of plasticity
123
!What 2 parts make up the basal ganglia's striatum
Caudate nucleus & Putamen
124
What are the functions of the basal ganglia? Recieves inputs from ______ & _______ areas and is important for ___________ learning. Dopamine circuits!
sensory ; motor ; Reward-based learning
125
In the Cerebral cortex, the "crevices" are called __________ and the "crowns" are called _______. This folding helps bring structures closer together.
sulci ; gyri
126
What are the 3 different types of glial cells?
Astrocytes, microglial cells, and oligodendrocytes
127
Astrocytes create the _______________
blood brain barrier
128
What do Microglial cells (Phagocytes) do?
remove damaged cells
129
Glial cells proliferate, unlike most _________.
neurons
130
_________ receive input from other neurons. They also do arborization.
dendrites
131
At the end of a axon terminal you have voltage gated ______ channels.
Ca2+
132
The resting membrane potential is ________
-70mV
133
Ion channels are _______ transport, they go ______ the electrochemical or
concentration gradient.
passive ; with
134
Ion pumps are _______ transport, they go _______ concentration gradient. They pump ____ in and ______ out.
Active; against ; (2 K+ ; 3 Na+ )
135
Membrane potential depends on _________ & __________.
gradients; permeability
136
EPSPs- makes the cell more likely to fire an action potential by ________ the cell. _______ ions are coming in.
IPSP- inhibiting an action potential from occurring causes ______________. ________ ions are coming in.
depolarizes ;Sodium
hyperpolarized; Chloride
137
Voltage-gated Sodium ion channels are densely found at the _____________and the nodes of Ranvier.
axon hillock
138
If summation results in membrane potential moving from -70 to ____mV
(threshold of excitation), then action potential triggered – neuron is
___________ - all or none phenomenon
-55; depolarized
139
At depolarization, _____ flows into the cell rapidly. At peak action potential +30mV those gates close and __________ gates open allowing a rush of potassium out of the cell. The cell returns to a negative resting potential. Na+ gates are closed, but since K+ gates stay open, cell becomes
________. When the cell overshoots to about -80mV its called the ______________ .
Na+;K+;hyperpolarized; refractory period
140
______________period: no action potentials can be generated. Followed by a relative refractory period – only large __________currents can trigger
an action potential.
Absolute refractory period; depolarizing
141
Synaptic transmission triggers
exocytosis
142
!What are the 2 types of post-synaptic receptors:
1. Ligand-gated ion channels (Ionotropic /fast)
2. G protein-coupled receptors (Metabotropic / slow)
143
Explain how synaptic transmission occurs with Ionotropic receptors.
- A neurotransmitter binds
-Causes conformational change
- changes channel permeability
- closes or opens the channel
144
Flexibility is working with what you already have. Whereas plasticity is creating new (anatomical) connections.
Ex. Losing a limb. Plasticity would be like growing a limb. Whereas inventing a prosthetic would be a "flexible response" to losing a limb.
eee
145
Be able to describe neurogenesis. Read and review the page that was about the video (page of terms)
146
Basal Ganglia
motor, dopamine reward pathways
147
Explain how synaptic transmission occurs with Metabotropic receptors.
- Neurotransmitter binds to GPCR (metabotropic receptor)
-This activates the G-protein
-the g protein can interact with ion channels directly causing them to open or close
-However, g protein activation results in the conversion of ATP to cAMP which acts as a 2nd messenger
- 2nd messenger triggers a signaling cascade
148
DREADDS are an example of _____________ receptors.
GPCR
149
Types of Neurotransmitters
Amino acids ex. glutamate, GABA
Biogenic amines – e.g., dopamine, norepinephrine
Acetylcholine (Ach) – own class
Neuropeptides (strings of amino acids) – e.g., Oxytocin
150
Ca2+ triggers excoctosis of vesicles containing neurotransmitters. The binding of these neurotransmitters to the postsynaptic neuron changes the __________. These post synaptic poetntials can be either ___________ (depolarizes) or ___________ (hyperpolarizes).
membrane potential; excitatory ; inhibitory
151
When an animal is going to be involved in an experiment, the review is carried out by_________________.
Animal Ethics Committee (AEC)
152
What are the considerations (STAMP)
-Standard Operating Protocols (SOPs)
-The definition of harm
-Animal user protocol
-Minimum number of animals
-Procedures
153
What are the 3 R's?
Reduce- the number of animals needed to the minimum
Refine- tests to cause the animals the least amount of stress
Replace- the usage of animals when possible
154
She is a prominent proponent for the humane treatment of livestock for
slaughter
Temple Grandin
155
Founder(s) of clinical and cognitive neuroscience. Also coined the term “neurology” connected brain (abnormalities) and behavior (autopsies).
Anne Green & Thomas Willis
156
Believing the mind and the brain are the same thing (Thales, Aristotle, Ancient Egyptians)
monism
157
Believing the brain (Body) and Mind were separate (Descartes)
DUALISM
158
________ believed in Modularity. They were a Phrenologist! Modularity claimed that brain functions could be pinpointed to a singular & specific region in the brain.
Joseph Gall
159
In contrast to Modularity, __________ believed in the connectome. uwu.They created the Aggregate Field Theory, which said the *whole* brain participates in behavior, as opposed to being localized to precise parts.
Marie Flourens
160
Marc Dax (sounds like he's choking)
Speech impairments
161
John Hughlings Jackson
epilepsy
162
Paul Broca
Aphasia, can understand language but speech is impaired
163
Operant conditioning (positive/negative, reinforcement/punishment)
skinner
164
Biochemistry, anatomy, electrophysiology, pharmacology and behavior...First person to describe the circuitry of the PFC in relation to working memory
Patricia Goldman-Rakic
165
Syncytium, the brain is a continuous mass that shares cytoplasm
Camillo Golgi
166
Neurons are discrete entities, came up with the Neuron Doctrine:
Ramon Y Cajal
167
Believed electrical current is a medium for information
transfer in the brain, not a byproduct of activity
Hermann Von Helmholtz
168
Coined the term “synapse
Sir Charles Sherrington
169
They realized learning & memory could be studied empirically
* The forgetting curve
* The spacing effect
Hermann Ebbinghaus
170
Believed rewarding stimulus ---> causes response---> overtime forms a **habit**
Edward Thorndike
171
Characterized 52 area’s of the brain
Korbinian Brodmann
172
!Has alternating gray and white matter. Its a nucleus that's involved in vision..
lateral genticulate nuclei (LGN)
173
Believed that learning has a biological basis.... "Cells that fire together wire together" DuH!
Donald Hebb
174
He highly influenced computation neuroscience and AI. DM me for an NFT!
Visual system, cerebellum, hippocampus and memory.
David Marr
175
These 2 believed in cognition, not just behavior.
Brenda Milner; George Miller
