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Control & Integrative Physiology > Pulmonary Ventilation > Flashcards

Pulmonary Ventilation Flashcards

1
Q

How does Boyle’s law control ventilation?

A

P is inversely proportional to V.
When volume of the lung increases, Plung< Patm so air rushes in and inspiration occurs.
When volume decreases, Plung>Patm so air is forced out of the lungs and expiration occurs.

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2
Q

Define intra-pleural pressure

A

Pip= pressure in the pleura of the lungs.

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3
Q

Is Pip positive or negative?

A

Pip is always negative as Palv> Pip so pressure is exerted outwards onto the pleura. If Pip>Palv then pressure is exerted into the lungs & the lungs would collapse.

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4
Q

Define intra-alveolar pressure

A

Palv= the pressure within the alveoli.

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5
Q

What determines Palv?

A
  1. The number of alveoli in the lungs.

2. The volume of alveoli in the lungs.

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6
Q

What is atelectasis? In what disease state does it occur?

A

Atelectasis= the loss of alveoli. Commonly occurs in emphysema.

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7
Q

What is the effect of atelectasis on airway resistance?

A

Loss of alveolar tissue causes the collapse of airways due to loss of ‘radial traction’ which alveoli supply. AAR, airway resistance majorly increases with atelectasis, air will then struggle to get into and out of the lungs.

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8
Q

What balance of pressure ensures the lungs remain constantly inflated?

A

Palv>Pip

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9
Q

Define trans-pulmonary pressure

A

The difference between Pip & Palv.

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10
Q

Give the formula for TPP

A

Palv-Pip

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11
Q

Why is expiration easier than inspiration? Answer in terms of pressures.

A

Tpp is higher on inhalation due to the further decreasing of Pip (more neg), difference in Pip and Palv is at its greatest at this point. Compliance is inversely proportional to TPP so an increase in TPP makes it more difficult to get air into the lungs. When expiration occurs, Pip rises as Palv is not as strong so TPP lowers and compliance thus increases. More effort required to inspiration due to higher TPP.

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12
Q

What event brings about a spontaneous pneumothorax?

A

Sudden bursting of blebs in the subpleura.

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13
Q

Who do spontaneous pneumothorax’ most commonly affect?

A

Tall males.

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14
Q

How does a tension pneumothorax occur?

A

Pleura form a one-way flap valve.

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15
Q

What pressure change brings about a pneumothorax?

A

Pip becomes greater than Palv so pressure is exerted into the lung & it has no choice but to collapse.

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16
Q

Define the function of T1 septal cells

A

Provide structure to the walls and have an energy-dependent membrane associated pumps which remove liquids that would otherwise impair gas exchange.

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17
Q

What happens to T1 septal cells when they are damged/ die?

A

Nothing- they cannot be replaced once lost.

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18
Q

Where are endothelial cells found?

A

Lining blood vessel walls. In the alveolar space- the blood vessels are capillaries w a cell wall that is only one cell thick= facilitates gas exchange.

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19
Q

What is the purpose of fused basal laminae in the alveolar space?

A

Shared walls between alveoli mean easier diffusion of gases- if there were individual walls each alveoli would need its own blood supply which would take up a major amount of space in the lungs.

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20
Q

Give the function of T2 septal cells

A

They produce surfactant, a lipid coating for the alveoli to prevent them alveolar collapse during breathing. They can replace T1 septal cells is necessary but this takes long.

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21
Q

What is the purpose of dust cells>?

A

Dust cells= patrolling macrophages which detect & destroy pathogens which have entered the alveolar space.

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22
Q

Give the function of the alveolar space.

A

NB for gas exchange, as tissue support for the airways.

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23
Q

Define compliance

A

The ease at which our lungs stretch.

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24
Q

Give the formula for compliance

A

dV/ dTPP.

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25
Q

Is compliance greater on inspiration or expiration?

A

Inspiration, as the lungs are stretching outwards.

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26
Q

Why would compliance reduce in an individual?

A

Aging: arthritis, stiffening of the chest.

Restrictive lung diseases e.g. pulmonary fibrosis.

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27
Q

How does atelectasis relate to compliance?

A

Initially the loss of alveoli means there is more ‘room’ for air to get into the lungs, so the lungs are technically more compliant. But the extra air which comes in cannot get out so AAR it is trapped & compliance then reduces- more difficult to get air in when there’s no space for it.

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28
Q

What is lung recoil?

A

Lung’s ability to return to its resting volume after inhalation (distension). Also the ability to resist overstretching.

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29
Q

What causes lung recoil?

A
  1. Elastin and collagen in the lung tissue.
  2. Surfactant is more attracted to itself than air so it tries to pull lung tissue closer together -> surfactant closer together.
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30
Q

Do healthy alveoli practice compliance or recoil?

A

Recoil, which reduces the SA of the overall lung meaning there are thinner walls between alveoli for better gas exchange.

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31
Q

Explain the balance between the chest wall and compliance.

A

Chest wants to expand as Palv>Pip, but recoil prevents this being too extreme. A balance between stretching and recoil occurs.

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32
Q

Why is Poiseuille’s law used to describe airway resistance?

A

Because airways are branching, bendy and tortuous, so normal resistance formulae and inapplicable.

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33
Q

How does a small change in radius yield a great change in airway resistance?

A

Resistance is inversely proportional to radius ^4.

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34
Q

How does an increase in viscosity affect airway resistance? How might this change in viscosity occur?

A

Resistance is proportional to viscosity. Moisture in the air increases viscosity of the air.

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35
Q

Why does airway resistance not increase when radius of a vessel decreases?

A

The resistance in airways remains fairly constant along the tubes because the sum of the CSA’s of many small airways is equal to the CSA of a few large airways. So the overall resistance doesn’t change.

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36
Q

How does an increase in mucous change resistance? Give disease examples

A

Decrease in radius= increase in resistance. Asthma & bronchitis.

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37
Q

How will smooth muscle activity affect resistance? Give disease examples.

A

SM activity leads to bronchoconstriction, reducing radius leading to an increase in resistance. Asthma & bronchitis.

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38
Q

How does oedema affect airway resistance and how would pulmonary oedema come about?

A

Oedema will reduce compliance through the stiffening of the lungs. Pulmonary oedema occurs due to cor pulmonale.

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39
Q

What is cor pulmonale?

A

Right heart failure.

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40
Q

How does coughing affect airways resistance?

A

Prolonged coughing may prompt lungs to collapse leading to a complete resistance to airflow.

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41
Q

Define FVC

A

Forced Vital Capacity- the maximum amount of air which can be forcefully exhaled following a maximum effort of inhalation.

42
Q

Define FEV1

A

Forced Expiratory Volume in one second.

43
Q

What does the FEV1/FVC ratio tell you in terms of lung health?

A

Gives an indication to how much air the lungs can expel with great effort.

44
Q

EXAMPLE- low FEV1, normal FVC. What is the disease type?

A

Obstructive due to the low ratio.

45
Q

EXAMPLE- low FEV1 and low FVC. What is the disease type?

A

Restrictive due to the normal ratio but low values.

46
Q

Define vital capacity

A

The amount of air which can be exhaled following the deepest possible inhalation, during the deepest possible expiration.

47
Q

Vital capacity relates to which cardiac parameter?

A

Stroke Volume.

48
Q

How can stroke volume be reduced?

A
  1. Diseases of the thoracic cage.
  2. Left heart failure leading to an increase in pulmonary BP.
  3. Pneumothorax.
  4. Fibrosis.
49
Q

How does SV affect VC?

A

Reduction to stroke volume leads to a restriction to breathing leading to a reduction in vital capacity. It is a vicious circle.

50
Q

What parameters does spirometry measure?

A
  1. Vital capacity.
  2. Tidal volume.
  3. Inspiratory capacity.
  4. Expiratory reserve volume.
51
Q

What type of measurements does spirometry measure?

A

Static lung volume measurements, those which do not depend on the amount of air being brought into/ out of the lungs, they measure possible capacities for air movement.

52
Q

What parameters does a body plethysmography measure?

A

Functional residual capacity and residual volume.

53
Q

Define residual volume of the lung.

A

The amount of air which remains in the lungs following the deepest possible expiration.

54
Q

How will residual volume change with emphysema?

A

Increase in lung volume due to loss of alveoli leads to an increase in residual volume. This air is trapped due to inappropriate closing of the airways, so barrel chest syndrome can occur.

55
Q

What disease is associated with barrel chest syndrome?

A

Emphysema.

56
Q

Give 3 examples of obstructive lung diseases.

A
  1. Emphysema.
  2. Chronic bronchitis.
  3. Asthma.
57
Q

Give three examples of restrictive lung diseases.

A
  1. Pulmonary fibrosis.
  2. Skeletal muscle disorders.
  3. Pulmonary oedema due to cor pulmonale.
58
Q

Contrast obstructive and restrictive lung diseases in terms of air movement.

A

Obstructive lung diseases let air in, but don’t let it out, whereas restrictive lung diseases prevent air getting in in the first place.

59
Q

What affects voluntary breathing?

A

Emotional state, anticipation, conscious thought.

60
Q

What are the two CNS elements which control involuntary breathing?

A

The medulla oblongata and the pons.

61
Q

What is the general role of the medulla oblongata in breathing?

A

Controls the breathing rate.

62
Q

What is the general role of the pons in breathing?

A

Controls the depth of breathing.

63
Q

Which is the more efficient mode of breathing?

A

Involuntary.

64
Q

What gas controls breathing?

A

CO2.

65
Q

What receptors are involved in involuntary control of breathing?

A
  1. Chemoreceptors, measure PO2, PCO2, H+, HCO3-.
  2. Baroreceptors, measure blood pressure changes.
  3. Stretch receptors, changes in lung volume.
  4. Sensations such as pain, temp + GIT sensations.
  5. Physical/ chem stimuli.
66
Q

What does a change in BP indicate about breathing?

A

Change in BP indicates a change in blood flow which in turn indicates a change in gas transport.

67
Q

Is adaptation of breathing sensors advantageous or disadvantageous?

A

Disadvantageous- they can get used to abnormal inputs if they occur over a longer period of time, leading to the likes of barrel chest syndrome.

68
Q

Give an effect of receptor adaptation

A

Barrel chest syndrome.

69
Q

What does the medulla oblongata monitor to control the rate of breathing?

A

PCO2.

70
Q

Name two centres found in the respiratory rhythmicity centres of the medulla oblongata

A
  1. Dorsal respiratory group.

2. Ventral respiratory group.

71
Q

Which respiratory centre group is used in all types of breathing?

A

The dorsal respiratory group.

72
Q

What is the function of the dorsal respiratory group?

A

Activation of the inspiratory muscles, and allowance of expiration to be passive.

73
Q

What is the function of the ventral respiratory group?

A

Activation of the expiratory muscles, making expiration active.

74
Q

When is expiration active?

A

In disease situations or during exercise.

75
Q

What are the inspiratory muscles?

A
  1. Diaphragm.

2. External intercostal muscles.

76
Q

What are the expiratory muscles?

A
  1. Internal intercostal muscles.
77
Q

What is the function of expiratory muscles?

A

Pulls the chest wall in quicker to increase the rate of breathing.

78
Q

What is forced breathing?

A

When both inspiration and expiration are active.

79
Q

What is passive breathing?

A

When inspiration is active and expiration is passive.

80
Q

What is the role of the pons in breathing?

A

Controls the depth of breathing.

81
Q

List the two centres of the pons which are involved in breathing.

A
  1. Pneustic centres.

2. Apneustic centres.

82
Q

What type of breathing do the apneustic centres of the pons bring about?

A

Periods of long inspiration interrupted by short expirations.

83
Q

When are the apenustic centres of breathing used?

A

During sleep.

84
Q

What are complications of the use of apneustic centres?

A

Snoring + sleep apnoea.

85
Q

What is the pattern of breathing assoicated with pneustic centres of the pons?

A

A balance of inspiration and expiration.

86
Q

Define pneumotaxic

A

The breathing pattern which shows a normal balance of inspiration and expiration.

87
Q

What is the function of pneustic and apneustic centres of the pons + what change do they bring about?

A

They adjust the output of respiratory rhythmicity centres in the medulla oblongata.

88
Q

What can damage to inputs to the pons lead to?

A

Irregular and spontaneous breathing patterns.

89
Q

What buffer system is used by the lungs to regulate pH.

A

The carbonic acid- bicarbonate buffer system.

90
Q

How is blood pH regulated through breathing?

A

Rate of respiration changes to accomodate changes in pH.

91
Q

What gas increases blood pH?

A

CO2.

92
Q

Explain renal compensation for blood pH.

A

H+ or HCO3- is reabsorbed into/ secreted out of the blood during filtration.

93
Q

Define respiratory acidosis

A

Body fluids becoming excessively acidic due to the impaired lung function of CO2 removal.

94
Q

Define respiratory alkalosis

A

Lung diseases lead to a shortness of breath resulting in an insufficient amount of CO2 entering the lungs.

95
Q

Give the symptoms of respiratory acidosis

A

Shortness of breath, easily fatigued, chronic cough and wheezing.

96
Q

Give the symptoms of respiratory alkalosis

A

Light-headedness, dizziness and numbness in the hands + feet.

97
Q

What are the elements of hypercapnia?

A
  1. High PCO2.
  2. High H+ concentration.
  3. Low HCO3- concentration.
  4. Acidic pH of blood and body fluids.
98
Q

How is respiratory acidosis treated?

A

Dorsal and ventral respiratory groups of the medulla oblongata alter the respiratory rate in order to remove CO2 and increase pH.

99
Q

What are the elements of hypocapnia?

A
  1. Low PCO2.
  2. Low H+ concentration.
  3. High HCO3- concentration.
  4. Bicarbonate store in the liver is released, further compounding the problem.
100
Q

How is respiratory alkalosis treated?

A

Decreasing the rate of breathing while increasing the depth of breathing= lesser but more efficient breaths to increase CO2 levels and decrease pH.

101
Q

What pattern of breathing leads to hypercapnia?

A

Hypoventilation, less than 10 brpm.

102
Q

What pattern of breathing leads to hypocapnia?

A

Hyperventilation, more than 20 brpm for a prolonger period of time.

Control & Integrative Physiology (2 decks)

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