Psychophysiology Flashcards
ACh and muscles
Ach is released into the neuromuscular junction where is causes muscles to contract; myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disorder that affect Ach receptors
ACh and sleep
involved in REM sleep and the regulation of sleep-wake cycle
ACh and memory
degradation of ACh cells in the entorhinal cortex and other areas underlies memory deficits in Alzheimer’s
Dopamine
personality, mood, memory, sleep
dopamine hypothesis (schizophrenia)
schizophrenia due to elevated dopamine levels or oversensitivity of dopamine receptors
dopamine and movement
involved in regulation of movement, linked to Tourette’s and Parkinson’s
norephinephrine
plays role in mood, attention, dreaming, learning, and certain autonomic functions
catecholamine hypothesis
some forms of depression are due to lover-than-normal levels of norephinephrine
serotonin
usually has inhibitory effect; linked to mood, hunger, temperature regulation, sexual activity, arousal, sleep, aggression, and migraines
elevated levels of serotonin found in
schizophrenia, autism, anorexia
low levels of serotonin found in
aggression, depression, suicide, bulimia, PTSD, OCD
GABA
inhibitory neurotransmitter; plays role in eating, seizure and anxiety disorders, motor control, vision, sleep
Low GABA levels found in
anxiety disorders
Huntington’s disease and GABA
degeneration of GABA-secreting cells in basal ganglia contributes to motor symptoms
glutamate
excitatory neurotransmitter; plays role in learning and memory, esp long term potentiation
excessive glutamate receptor activity
can lead to seizures, contribute to stroke-related brain damage, Huntington’s, Alzheimer’s
endorphins
inhibitory neuromodulators that lower the sensitivity of postsynaptic neurons to neurotransmitters; analgesic properties
limbic system structures
amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate cortex
limbic system activities
mediation of emotion; memory and other cognitive function
Amygdala
integrates, coordinates, and directs motivational and emotional activities, attaches emotions to memories, and is involved in the recall of emotionally-charged experiences; involved in acquisition of classically conditioned emotional responses
Kluver-Bucy Syndrome
caused by bilateral lesions in the amygdala and temporal lobes of primates; reduces fear/aggression, increases docility and compulsive oral exploratory behaviors, alters dietary habits, produce hypersexuality and “psychic blindness” (inability to recognize significance or meaning of events and objects)
hippocampus
associated with learning and memory
results of bilateral removal of medial temporal lobes
anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia for events occurring up to three years prior to the surgery
cingulate cortex
involved in attention, emotion, and the perception and subjective experience of pain
Frontal lobe parts
primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area, premotor cortex, Broca’s area, prefrontal cortex
primary motor cortex
in frontal lobe; involved in execution of movements; arranged according to muscles they control
supplementary motor area
in frontal lobe; involved in the planning and control of movement; mediates motor imagery and involved in learning of new motor sequences
premotor cortex
in frontal lobe; important for control of movement in response to sensory stimuli
Broca’s area
in frontal lobe; major motor speech area; damage produces Broca’s (expressive) aphasia, which is characterized by difficulties producing spoken and written language
prefrontal cortex
involved in complex behaviors including emotion, memory, attention, self-awareness, and executive functions
hypofrontality is linked to
schizophrenia, ADHD, dementia
dorsal convexity dysexecutive syndrome
caused by damage to the dorsolateral area of the prefrontal cortex; characterized by impaired judgment, insight, planning, and organization; individuals tend to be concrete and perseverative, have trouble learning from experience, neglect their hygiene, have reduced sexual interest, and be apathetic
orbitofrontal disinhibition syndrome
caused by damage to orbitofrontal area of the prefrontal cortex; involves emotional lability, distractibility, poor impulse control, and impaired social insight, “pseudopsychopathy”
mesial frontal apathetic syndrome
caused by damage to mediofrontal area of the prefrontal cortex; “pseudo depression”, impaired spontaneity, reduced emotional reactions, diminished motor behavior and verbal output, lower-extremity weakness and sensory loss
parietal lobe functions
somatosensory cortex; governs pressure, temperature, pain, proprioception, and gustation
apraxia
caused by parietal lobe damage; inability to perform skilled motor movements
anosognosia
inability to recognize one’s own neurological symptoms or disorder; caused by parietal lobe damage
Gerstmann’s syndrome
caused by parietal lobe damage; finger agnosia, right-left confusion, agraphia, and acalculia
temporal lobe parts
auditory cortexa and Wernicke’s area
Wernicke’s area
important for comprehension of language
Wenicke’s aphasia
characterized by severe deficits in language comprehension and abnormalities in language production
occipital lobe
contains visual cortex, which is responsible for visual perception, recognition, and memory
prosopagnosia
inability to recognize familiar faces
trichromatic theory
theory of color vision that says there are three different types of color receptors (cones) that are each receptive to a different primary color (red, blue, or green)
opponent-process theory
theory of color vision that says that three types of bipolar receptors exist– red-green, yellow-blue, and white-black
rate of color blindness
red/green affects about 8-10% of the male population
retinal disparity
two eyes see world from two different views; the closer the object, the greater the disparity
monocular versus binocular depth perception cues
binocular cues are more relevant for close objects, while monocular cues are more relevant for far-waya objects
gate-control theory of pain
nervous system can process only a limited amount of sensory information at one time; cells in spinal cord block some signals when too much input is received
Weber’s Law
the more intense the stimulus, the greater the increase in stimulus intensity required for the increase to produce a just noticeable difference
Fechner’s Law
physical stimulus changes are logarithmically related to their psychological sensations; a person’s experience of stimulus intensity increases arithmetically as the stimulus intensity increases geometrically
Stevens’s Power Law
describes a sensation as an exponential function of stimulus intensity; makes it possible to predict that doubling the intensity of a light less than doubles the sensation of the light’s brighten, but doubling the intensity of a shock more than doubles the physical sensation
parts of brain involved in memory encoding and retrieval
left cerebral cortex for encoding; right cerebral cortex (esp right frontal cortex) for retrieval; known as hemispheric encoding/retrieval asymmetry
right temporal lobe damage and memory
deficits in nonverbal memory tasks (e.g., face recognition, spatial position, maze-learning, emotional memory)
left temporal lobe damage and memory
deficits in verbal memory (e.g., recall of word lists and stories, recognition of words and numbers)
hippocampus and memory
responsible for consolidating long-term declarative memories; essential for spatial memory and explicit memory; degradation linked with memory loss in normal aging and Alzheimer’s
amygdala and memory
plays a key role in fear conditioning and adding emotional significance to memories
prefrontal cortex and memory
plays a role in episodic memory and prospective memory and in constructive memory and false recognition
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and memory
important for working memory; impairments in working memory in schizophrenia linked to abnormal activity in this area
thalamus and memory
involved in processing incoming information and transferring it to the cortex; damage to certain areas of the thalamus produces anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia, and confabulation (e.g., Korsakoff syndrome)
Basal ganglia, cerebellum and motor cortex and memory
play a role in procedural memory and implicit memory
synapse changes with memory
short-term memory involved neurochemical changes at existing synapses; long-term memory also entails an increase in the number of synapses and modifications of the structure of existing synapses
conduction aphasia
caused by damage to the arcuate fasciculus, which connects Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas; does not significantly affect language comprehension, but does result in anomia, paraphasia, and impaired repetition
paraphasia
the substitution of words related in sound of meaning to the intended words
transcortical aphasia
caused by damage outside the language regions in areas that connect these regions to other brain regions
six basic emotions
fear, anger, happiness, disgust, surprise, sadness
James-Lange Theory
emotions represent perceptions of bodily reactions to sensory stimuli (you are sad because you are crying)
Cannon-Bard Theory
emotional and bodily reactions to stimuli occur simultaneously as a result of thalamic stimulation of the cortex and the peripheral nervous system; supported by similarity of bodily sensations across emotions
Two-Factor Theory
subjective emotional experiences are the consequence of a combination of physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal and the environmental context in which it occurs
Cognitive Appraisal Theory
emotions are universal but there are differences in how emotion-arousing events are interpreted or appraised; the appraisal is the primary determining factor in what emotion is experienced
primary appraisal
a person’s evaluation of a situation as irrelevant positive-benign, or stressful with regard to his or her own well-being; this appraisal depends on the individual’s beliefs, values, and expectations
secondary appraisal
the person’s evaluation of the resources he or she has to cope with a situation that has been identified as stressful
re-appraisal
occurs when a person monitors the situation and , as necessary, modifies his or her primary and/or secondary appraisals
Papez’s circuit
neural circuit that mediates the experience and expression of emotion; includes the hippocampus, mammillary bodies, anterior nuclei of the thalamus, and cingulate gyrus; later modified to include cerebral cortex, amygdala, and hypothalamus
cerebral cortex and emotion
left governs positive emotions (damage causes depression/anxiety/aggression/paranoia); right mediates negative emotions (damage causes indifference/apathy/emotional lability/undue cheerfulness and joking)
facial symmetry and emotion
emotion controlled more by right hemisphere; emotions shown more strongly on left side of face
hypothalamus and emotion
involved in the translation of emotion into physical responses; damage can cause a rage response or uncontrollable laughter
general adaptation syndrome
alarm reaction, resistance, exhaustion
Type A Behavior Pattern
highly competitive and achievement oriented; sense of time urgency; hostile, easily irritated, and impatient; antagonistic personality is associated with health problems including coronary heart disease in males
when during pregnancy does sexual differentiation begin?
6-8 weeks after conception
male-female brain differences
size of corpus callosum, hippocampus, and SCN
beta waves (sleep)
alert, fully awake state
alpha waves (sleep)
awake, rested, relaxed state
theta waves (sleep)
deep relaxation, light sleep
delta waves (sleep)
deep sleep
five stages of sleep
1: sleep begins, alpha waves replaced by theta waves
2: theta waves predominate, but are interrupted by bursts of sleep spindles and K complexes
3: large, slow delta waves appear
4: delta waves dominate
5: REM sleep; EEG pattern similar to stages 1 and 2
timing of sleep stages
sleeper passes through all 5 stages every 90-100 minutes; REM periods increase in length as the night progresses
sleep stages in infants
young infants begin with REM sleep, and first four stages are not distinguishable from one another; sequence of REM and NREM sleep begins to reverse by about 3 months of age
Six levels of consciousness
conscious, confused, delirious, obtunded, stuporous, comatose
post-traumatic amnesia
post-injury anterograde amnesia; duration has been found to be a good predictor of persistence of symptoms
retrograde amnesia in head injury
recent memories are affected more than remote memories, and remote memories return first
recovery timeline for head injury
greatest amount of recovery occurs during the first three months, with considerable additional recovery occurring through the first year
postconcussional syndrome/disorder
immediate symptoms include headache, dizziness, nausea, blurred vision, drowsiness; subsequent symptoms can include cognitive impairment, irritability, depression, anxiety; DSM diagnosis includes head injury, problems with attention or memory, and three other symptoms for at least three months
three main causes of stroke
- thrombosis (blood clot), 2. embolism (blockage by material from another part of blood stream), 3. hemorrhage
risk factors for stroke
hypertension, atherosclerosis, atrial fibrillation, myocardial infarction, diabetes, smoking, increasing age (esp after 60)
middle cerebral artery stroke symptoms
contralateral hemiplegia and hemianasthesia, controlateral homonymous hemianopia (visual field loss), dysarthira, aphasia, apraxia and sensory neglect
posterior cerebral artery stroke symptoms
contralateral homonymous hemianopia (visual field loss), memory loss, unilateral cortical blindness, visual agnosia
anterior cerebral artery stroke symptoms
contralateral hemiplegia, gait apraxia, apathy, depression, confusion, impaired judgment/insight, bower and bladder incontinence, mutism
Huntington’s Disease age of onset
30-50
Huntington’s symptom progression
- emotional and cognitive symptoms (depression, apathy, anxiety, antisocial tendencies, forgetfulness); 2. early motor symptoms of fidgeting and clumsiness; 3. facial grimaces and “piano playing” movements of fingers (beginning of chorea); 4. progression of chorea, “dance-like” gait, athetosis (slow, writhing movements), 5. Dementia
Huntington’s brain regions
loss of GABA-secreting neurons and glutamate exotoxicity in the basal ganglia, especially the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus
Parkinson’s brain regions
progressive degeneration of dopamine-containing cells in the substantial nigra, which affects other connecting areas including the thalamus and frontal lobes
positive and negative Parkinson’s symptoms
positive: tremor at rest, muscle rigidity (including mask-like facial expression), akathisia; negative: postural disturbances, speech difficulties, bradykinesia (slowed movement), akinesia (reduction in spontaneous movement)
Parkinson’s and depression
depression precedes motor symptoms in about 20%, about 50% have depression at some point during illness
Parkinson’s treatment
L-dopa (dopamine agonist); injecting cells into the basal ganglia
generalized seizures
bilaterally symmetrical, no focal onset; include tonic-clonic and absence seizures; may have thalamus involvement
partial seizures
begin in one side of the brain and affect one side of the body initially, although they sometime spread and become generalized; include simple partial seizures and complex partial seizures; often involve temporal lobe, but can arise in one of the other lobes of the cerebral cortex
multiple sclerosis
involves degeneration of the myelin that surrounds nerve fibers in the brain and spinal cord; believed to be an autoimmune response and can be triggered by genetic, viral, or environmental factors
MS demographics
more common in women than men, onset usually between 20 and 40
MS types
relapsing-remitting (80-85% initially); most progress to secondary progressive types, which involves gradual worsening with distance periods of relapse and remission
symptoms of MS
optic neuritis, fatigue that worsens in afternoon, motor impairments, sensory abnormalities. Later symptoms include tremors, speech and swallowing problems, hearing loss, depression/anxiety/mood symptoms, cognitive impairment (in 50-70%, usually mild), sexual dysfunction, loss of bladder/bowel control
primary (essential) versus secondary hypertension
primary has no known cause; secondary is related to anther condition
demographic risk factors for hypertension
family history, older age, african american race, male (in younger group), female (in older group and African Americans)
behavioral risk factors for hypertension
obesity, cigarette smoking, excessive use of table salt, stress
fibromyalgia symptoms
muscle aches, tenderness, stiffness, fatigue, sleep disturbances; more common in females and in middle age; symptoms often respond to some extent to behavioral treatments
classic versus common migraine
classic starts with an aura of focal neurological symptoms
risk factors for migraine
menstruation, stress and relaxation after stress, changes in barometric pressure, alcohol, decongestant and analgesic overuse, certain foods; more common in women, linked to perfectionism, orderliness, neuroticism, inflexibility and ambitiousness
etiology of migraine
constriction and dilation of blood vessels in the brain; linked to low serotonin levels
prevalence of PMS symptoms
up to 75% of women experience some symptoms; 20-50% experience a “premenstrual syndrome,”; 3-5% meet criteria for PMDD
pituitary gland
referred to as “master gland” because it influences other endocrine glands; produces antidiuretic hormone and somatotrophic (growth) hormone
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
produced in pituitary; acts in kidneys to mediate fluid retention; hypo secretion produces diabetes insipidus (excessive water loss)
somatotrophic (growth) hormone
produced in pituitary; stimulates muscle and skeletal growth; hypo secretion produces dwarfism, which hyper secretion results in giantism in childhood and acromegaly (enlarged hands, feet, and facial features) in adulthood
thyroid gland
produces thyroxine
hyperthyroidism
produces Grave’s disease, a disorder characterized by speeded metabolism, elevated body temperature, heat intolerance, increased appetite with weight loss, accelerated heart rate, agitation, emotional lability, fatigue, insomnia, and reduced attention span
hypothyroidism
involves slowed metabolism, reduced appetite with weight gain, slower heart rate, lowered body temperature, lethargy, depression, decreased libido, apathy, confusion, and impaired concentration and memory
pancreas
releases insulin; too much insulin causes hypoglycemia, a disorder involving hunger, dizziness, headaches, blurred vision, palpitations, anxiety, depression, and confusion; too little causes diabetes mellitus, which can cause increased appetite with weight loss, polyuria, polydipsia, increased susceptibility to infection, apathy, confusion, and mental dullness
traditional antipsychotic drugs
phenothiazine, thioxanthene, and buyrophenone (haloperidol)
indications for traditional antipsychotic use
schizophrenia, acute mania, deductions and hallucinations associated with MDD, organic psychoses; more effective for positive than negative symptoms
traditional antipsychotic mode of action
blocks dopamine receptors in the brain (esp D2 receptors)
dopamine hypothesis
schizophrenia is due to overactivity at dopamine receptors due to oversensitivity or receptors of excessive dopamine levels
side effects of traditional antipsychotics
anticholinergic effects, extrapyramidal effects, neuroleptic malignant syndrome
anticholinergic effects
dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary retention, constipation, tachycardia, delayed ejaculation; usually appear early and disappear within a few weeks or months as tolerance is built up
extrapyramidal side effects
caused by effects of antipsychotics on dopamine receptors, especially in the caudate nucleus; include Parkinsonism, akathisia, and acute dystonia
tardive dyskinesia
symptoms similar to Huntington’s that include involuntary rhythmic movements of jaw, lips, tongue, and extremities; usually late-occurring and more common in females and older patients; may be alleviated by a benzodiazepine or GABA agonist; most severe effects association with haloperidol (which is most potent)
neuroleptic malignant syndrome
rapid onset of motor, mental, and autonomic symptoms include muscle rigidity, tachycardia, hyperthermia, and altered consciousness; potentially fatal
atypical antipsychotic drugs
include dibenzodiazepine (clozapine), benzisoxazole (resperidone), thienobenzodiazepine (olazapine), and dibenzothiazepine (quetiapine)
atypical antipsychotic indications
schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression and suicidality, alcohol and drug addiction, hostility, motor movement association with Huntington’s/Parkinson’s/other movement disorders
atypical antipsychotic mode of action
act on D4 and other dopamine receptors and well as receptors for other neurotransmitter include serotonin and glutamate
side effects of atypical antipsychotics
anticholinergic effects; lowered seizure threshold; sedation; extrapyramidal side effects are less common but can happen; agranulocytosis and other blood dyscrasias; neuroleptic malignant syndrome; require careful blood monitoring
agranulocytosis
marked decrease in a certain type of white blood cell; can be a side effect of atypical antipsychotics
tricyclics
amitriptyline; nortiptyline; doxepin, imipramine, comiprimaine
tricyclic indications
most effective for depressions that involve decreased appetite and weight loss, early morning awakening/other sleep disturbances, psychomotor retardation, and anhedonia; particularly useful for alleviating vegatative/somatic symptoms of depression; also used for panic disorder, agoraphobia, bulimia, OCD, enuresis, and neuropathic pain
tricyclic mode of action
block the reuptake of norephinephrine, serotonin, and/or dopamine at the synapses
tricyclic side effects
cardiovascular symptoms (tachycardia, palpitations, hypertension or hypotension, cardic arrhythia); adverge affects more common in older people;
tricyclic overdose
can be lethal and should not be prescribed in large quantities to patients at risk for suicide; symptoms of overdose include ataxia, impaired concentration, agitation, severe hypotension, fever, cardiac arrhythmia, delirium, seizures, and coma
traditional antipsychotic drugs
phenothiazine, thioxanthene, and buyrophenone (haloperidol)
indications for traditional antipsychotic use
schizophrenia, acute mania, deductions and hallucinations associated with MDD, organic psychoses; more effective for positive than negative symptoms
traditional antipsychotic mode of action
blocks dopamine receptors in the brain (esp D2 receptors)
dopamine hypothesis
schizophrenia is due to overactivity at dopamine receptors due to oversensitivity or receptors of excessive dopamine levels
side effects of traditional antipsychotics
anticholinergic effects, extrapyramidal effects, neuroleptic malignant syndrome
anticholinergic effects
dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary retention, constipation, tachycardia, delayed ejaculation; usually appear early and disappear within a few weeks or months as tolerance is built up
extrapyramidal side effects
caused by effects of antipsychotics on dopamine receptors, especially in the caudate nucleus; include Parkinsonism, akathisia, and acute dystonia
tardive dyskinesia
symptoms similar to Huntington’s that include involuntary rhythmic movements of jaw, lips, tongue, and extremities; usually late-occurring and more common in females and older patients; may be alleviated by a benzodiazepine or GABA agonist; most severe effects association with haloperidol (which is most potent)
neuroleptic malignant syndrome
rapid onset of motor, mental, and autonomic symptoms include muscle rigidity, tachycardia, hyperthermia, and altered consciousness; potentially fatal
atypical antipsychotic drugs
include dibenzodiazepine (clozapine), benzisoxazole (resperidone), thienobenzodiazepine (olazapine), and dibenzothiazepine (quetiapine)
atypical antipsychotic indications
schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression and suicidality, alcohol and drug addiction, hostility, motor movement association with Huntington’s/Parkinson’s/other movement disorders
atypical antipsychotic mode of action
act on D4 and other dopamine receptors and well as receptors for other neurotransmitter include serotonin and glutamate
side effects of atypical antipsychotics
anticholinergic effects; lowered seizure threshold; sedation; extrapyramidal side effects are less common but can happen; agranulocytosis and other blood dyscrasias; neuroleptic malignant syndrome; require careful blood monitoring
agranulocytosis
marked decrease in a certain type of white blood cell; can be a side effect of atypical antipsychotics
tricyclics
amitriptyline; nortiptyline; doxepin, imipramine, comiprimaine
tricyclic indications
most effective for depressions that involve decreased appetite and weight loss, early morning awakening/other sleep disturbances, psychomotor retardation, and anhedonia; particularly useful for alleviating vegatative/somatic symptoms of depression; also used for panic disorder, agoraphobia, bulimia, OCD, enuresis, and neuropathic pain
tricyclic mode of action
block the reuptake of norephinephrine, serotonin, and/or dopamine at the synapses
tricyclic side effects
cardiovascular symptoms (tachycardia, palpitations, hypertension or hypotension, cardic arrhythia); adverge affects more common in older people;
tricyclic overdose
can be lethal and should not be prescribed in large quantities to patients at risk for suicide; symptoms of overdose include ataxia, impaired concentration, agitation, severe hypotension, fever, cardiac arrhythmia, delirium, seizures, and coma
SSRI’s
fluoxetine, fluvoxamine, paroxetine, sertraline
SSRI mode of action
block the reuptake of serotonin
SNRIs
include effexor (velafaxine) and duloxetine (cymbalta); serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors; used for MDD, GAD, social anxiety, OCD; also used for certain pain conditions; may increase blood pressure and requires frequent monitoring
lithium
drug of choice for bipolar, especially “classic” bipolar that includes elevated rather than irritable mood and without rapid cycling
lithium mode of action
not well understood, but may be related to reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine
lithium side effects
gastrointestinal (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, metallic taste, weight gain); fine hand tremor and shakiness; fatigue; restlessness; polyuria; polydipsia; major danger is toxicity
lithium toxicity
symptoms include diarrhea, ataxia, drowsiness, slurred speech, confusion, and coarse tremor; serum levels must be closely monitored on lithium
carbamazepine
aka Tegretol; initial used as an anticonvulsant but also indicated for mania; valproic acid (Depakote) and clonazepam (Klonopin) are other anticonvulsants that can be helpful for mood stabilization
carbamazepine indications
helpful for bipolar that has not responded to lithium; more beneficial than lithium for those who experience frequent mood swings and for those with dysphoric mania
carbamazepine mode of action
not well understood, but believed to impact serotonin levels
carbamazepine side effects
dizziness; ataxia; visual disturbances; anorexia; nausea; rash; contraindicated for people with cardiac abnormalities; slight risk for agranulocyctosis and aplastic anemia and blood monitoring is required
sedative-hypnotics
include barbiturates, anxiolytics, and alcohol; generalized CNS depressants with generally dose-dependent effects
sedative-hypnotic withdrawal syndrome
tremors, anxiety, nausea, vomiting, paranoia, hallucinations, delirium, life-threatening convulsive seizures
barbiturate types
amobarbital, pentobarbital, secobarbital, phenobarbital
barbiturate side effects
used less often now due to serious side effects, which can include sedation, anesthesia, coma, and death; also can cause paradoxical excitement
barbiturate mode of action
interrupt impulsis to the reticular activating system
barbiturates and sleep
effect on inducing sleep usually lasts only a few weeks, than total sleep time may fall below pre-drug level; can also cause decrease in REM sleep; abrupt cessation can produce REM rebound and nightmares
benzodiazephines
most widely-used psychiatric medications (anxiolytics); include diazepam, alprazolam, oxazepam, triazolam, chlordiazepoxide, and lorazepam
benzodiazepine indications
relieve anxiety; treat sleep disturbances, seizures, CP, and other disorders involving muscle spasms, and alcohol withdrawal
benzodiazepine mode of action
stimulate the inhibitory action of the neurotransmitter GABA
benzodiazepine side effects
drowsiness, dizziness, lethargy, slurred speech, ataxia, impaired psychomotor ability, irritability, hostility, paradoxical excitation/agitation, increased appetite/weight gain, skin rash, blood dyscrasias, impaired sexual functioning, disorientation/confusion, sleep disturbances, anterograde amnesia, depression
benzodiazepine withdrawal
includes hyper excitability, seizures, depersonalization, panic, and stroke
beta blockers
includes propranolol (Inderal); used to treat high blood pressure, angina, and other cardio disorders; tremors; migraine headaches; glaucoma; also useful for alleviating physical symptoms associated with anxiety
beta-blocker mode of action
block beta-adrenergic receptors, which respond to epinephrine and norepinephrine
side effects of beta-blockers
bradycardia; shortness of breath; arterial insufficiency; nausea; diarrhea; depression; dizziness; sexual dysfunction; trouble sleeping; numbness/tingling in fingers and toes
narcotic-analgesics
opiods; have both sedative and analgesic properties; include opium, morphine, codeine, heroin, Percodan, Dilaudid, Demerol, Darvon, methadone
narcotic-analgesic indications
pain, diarrhea, cough suppressant
opioid mode of action
bind to body’s natural opioid receptors
opioid side effects
constricted pupils; decreased visual acuity; increased perspiration; constipation; nausea; vomiting; respiratory depression
opioid withdrawal
symptoms include what seems like a bad case of the flu
amphetamine usage
narcolepsy and ADHD
stimulant drug mechanism of action
potentiate the release of norepinephrine and dopamine and block their reuptake
naltrexone
used to prevent alcohol use in those with abuse/dependence; opioid receptor antagonist that blocks the craving for and reinforcing effects of alcohol
disulfiram (Antabuse)
used to prevent alcohol use in those with abuse/dependence; inhibits alcohol metabolism and causes nausea, vomiting, sweating, headaches that deter individual fro drinking
