Psychopathology (P1) Flashcards
OCD - Characteristics
Behavioral:
- Repetitive compulsions
- Avoidance (avoid situations that trigger compulsions)
Emotional:
- Accompanying depression
- Anxiety and distress (unpleasant state of high arousal)
- Disgust (disgusted in themselves)
- Guilt
Cognitive
- Obsessive thoughts
- Cognitive strategies to deal with obsessions (praying)
- Insight (aware compulsions aren’t rational)
OCD - Explanations (AO1)
Genetic: (inherited)
- Candidate genes (specific genes associated with OCD, creating a vulnerability) - SERT/ COMT
- Polygenic (caused by several genes) - Taylor predicted 230
- Aetiologically heterogeneous (different sets of genes cause different types of OCD)
Neural: (brain structures and neurotransmitters)
- Para-hippocampal gyrus (increased processing of unpleasant emotions such as guilt)
- Frontal lobe (impaired decision making)
- reduced serotonin in synapse (low mood)
- increased dopamine (reward motivated behaviour)
OCD - Explanations (AO3)
GENETIC:
P: Research support
E: 37% of patients had parents with the disorder and 21% with siblings
T: supports the genetic explanation of inheritance
P: Research support
E: 68% of monozygotic twins were both diagnosed and 31% of dizygotic twins
T: supports genetic explanation as twins who share 100% DNA were more likely to be diagnosed
P: Alternative explanation
E: over 50% of OCD patients had experienced a traumatic event in their past and more severe in those with more trauma
T: suggests environment also play a part, not a sole explanation
P: Low predictive validity
E: too many candidate genes - over 230 found - hard to find a definitive genetic cause
T: decreases the usefulness as it has low predictive validity
NEURAL:
P: cause and effect
E: are changes in the brain causing it or as a result of it
T: causation cannot be implied
P: Real world application
E: treated with SSRI’s which block the uptake of serotonin by the post synaptic neuron, leaving more in the synapse
T: benefits the patients QOL and the economy
P: Research support
E: studies show increasing serotonin levels reduces OCD symptoms
T: supports that serotonin plays a role in OCD
P: Reductionist
E: reduces complex phenomena of OCD down to brain structures and neurotransmitters
T: too simplistic
OCD - Treatment
SSRI’s - corrects the imbalance of neurotransmitters in the brain by blocking the reabsorption and breakdown of serotonin, increasing its levels in the synapse
Alternatives - SNRI’s increase serotonin and noradrenaline/Tricycles are the same as SSRI’s but have more side effects
AO3:
P: side effects
E: blurred vision and indigestion
T: people are less likely to take them and their symptoms return
P: non-disruptive and cost effective
E: a pill taken that does not interrupt a persons life which is cheaper than therapy
T: accessible to lots of people as it suits people no matter their lifestyle
Depression - Characteristics
Behavioural:
- Reduced activity levels
- Disrupted sleeping/ eating patterns
- Aggressive acts
Emotional:
- Lowered mood
- Anger
- Lowered self-esteem
Cognitive:
- Poor concentration
- Absolutist thinking
- Attending the negatives
Depression - Explanations (AO1)
Beck’s theory:
- Faulty information processing (interpreting all situations irrationally (catastrophizing/black and white thinking/arbitrary inferences)
- Negative self-schemas (a mental framework where all info about the self is negative - no one likes me)
- Negative triad (negative views about the self/world/future)
Ellis’ theory:
A - activating event
B - belief
C - consequence
Depression - Explanations (AO3)
P: real world application
E: treatment is CBT where irrational beliefs are identified and challenged
T: benefits the patients QOL and economy
P: alternative explanation
E: biology - serotonin is found at lower levels in those with depression and anti-depressants are a successful treatment
T: not a sole cause
P: incomplete explanation (Beck)
E: does not attempt to address the emotional symptoms such as low mood/ self-esteem/ anger
T: only a partial explanation
P: machine reductionist
E: reduces depression down to our thoughts
T: too simplistic and better = interactionist approach
Depression - Treatment
CBT:
- based off Becks idea and it aims to identify and challenge negative thoughts and substitute them with positive ones
- thought catching - record the though
- patient as scientist - patient generates hypothesis to test validity of irrational thought and provides evidence to disprove it
- cognitive restructuring - finding a new perspective to change thoughts
- homework - tasks completed between sessions
- behavioural activation - encourages patient to take part in activities they stopped participating in
REBT:
- based off Ellis’ idea
A
B
C
Dispute beliefs
Effect of disputing beliefs
AO3:
P: CBT is present focused
E: it may be something in the clients past causing the depression
T: therapist ignores important aspect of the clients depressive experience
P: CBT requires a lot of time and effort
E: patients with severe depression with fail to attend
T: inaccessible to most in need
P: CBT fails to address the environments in after therapy
E: abusive relationships may still produce irrational thoughts
T: it doesn’t acknowledge the patients whole depressive experience
Phobias - characteristics
Behavioural:
- Panic
- Avoidance
- Endurance
Emotional:
- Anxiety
- Unreasonable emotional response
- Fear
Cognitive:
- Cognitive distortions
- Selective attention
- Irrational beliefs
Phobias - explanation (AO1)
Two process model (acquisition and maintenance)
Acquisition:
- acquired through classical conditioning - association
UCS - UCR
UCS + NS - UCR
CS - CR
Maintenance:
- maintained through operant conditioning - consequence
- negative reinforcement (avoidance)
Research:
little albert experiment - white rat and loud bang association
generalization - tendency to respond in the same way to different but similar stimuli
Phobias - explanation (AO3)
P: Research support
E: found 73% of dental phobics had experienced a trauma involving dentistry
T: shows a link between stimulus and pain, increases credibility
P: cannot account for cognitions
E: ignores cognitive characteristics such as selective attention, cognitive distortions and irrational beliefs
T: does not fully explain the whole experience of phobias
P: not all who experience phobias have experienced a trauma
E: car accidents are common however car phobias are not
T: cannot explain why only some traumatic events lead to phobias
P: real world application
E: treatment is flooding and systematic desensitization by associating the phobic stimulus with something pleasant
T: benefits the patient (QOL)
F: benefits the economy
Phobias - Treatments (AO1)
Systematic desensitisation:
- based on classical conditioning
1. Anxiety hierarchy (a list of all situations related to phobic stimulus that provoke anxiety in order)
2. Relaxation techniques (breathing exercises, meditation)
3. Exposure (patient is exposed to each stage of the anxiety hierarchy and cannot move on until they are completely relaxed)
Flooding:
- immediate exposure to phobic stimulus
- no gradual build up
- no avoidance so patient learns it is harmless through exhaustion (extinction)
- not unethical - but unpleasant so need informed consent
Phobias - Treatments (AO3)
Systematic desensitisation:
P: Diverse range of clients
E: can be used on people with learning difficulties as it is a behavioural therapy instead of a cognitive therapy
T: can treat more people
P: high engagement rates
E: involves pleasant aspects such as relaxation techniques and so patients are more likely to engage
T: low attrition rates
Flooding:
P: cost effective and non-disruptive
E: works very quickly (1h) and so has little impact on ones day-to-day life
T: more people can be treated at the same cost as SD
P: traumatic for patients - anxiety
E: one case where a patient was hospitalised
T: high attrition rates
P: cannot treat all phobias
E: public speaking
T: decreases usefulness
Definitions and abnormality - statistical infrequency
A behaviour is abnormal if it is statistically rare and it is determined by looking at the distribution of a particular behaviour within society
- intellectual disability disorder (IQ below 70 - 2%)
P: real world application
E: useful in diagnosis of intellectual diability disorder
T: useful in psychiatric diagnosis
P: some statistically infrequent behaviours labelled as abnormal could be desirable traits
E: IQ above 130 - 2%
T: needs to identify behaviours that are rare and undesirable , cannot be used alone - decreases usefulness
F: some abnormal behaviours are frequent such as depression (1/4) and so it isn’t enough to classify someone as abnormal
Definitions of abnormality - deviation from social norms
Any behaviour that does not conform to accepted standards of normal behaviour is seen as abnormal
Anti-social personality disorder:
- fail to conform to lawful and culturally normative ethical behaviour
- harm others
- don’t feel empathy
P: real world application
E: useful in diagnosis of anti-social personality disorder as they fail to conform to ethical standards
T: useful in psychiatric diagnosis
P: changes from culture to culture
E: in the UK SZ (hearing voices) is seen as abnormal and undesirable but in Ghana it is seen as desirable and normal
T: no global standard - not universal
P: low temporal validity
E: changes over time - homosexuality
T: historically it resulted in violations of human rights
Definitions of abnormality - failure to function adequately
Abnormal if you are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life
- violates moral standards
- suffering
- maladaptiveness
- a person staying in bed all day or refusing to go to work
behaviour that is maladaptive, irrational or dangerous and causes personal distress or distress to others
P: most people fail to function adequately as some point but are not considered as abnormal
E: bereavement - don’t need psychiatric help
T: cannot be applied to all circumstances
P: some people are abnormal but function adequately
E: Harold shipman killed multiple elderly patients but had a well paid job, looked smart
T: this definition alone cannot tell us all abnormal people in society
Definitions of abnormality - deviation from ideal mental health
abnormal if there is absence of certain criteria for ideal mental health
- no symptoms of distress
- realistic views of world
- good self-esteem and lack guilt
- independent
P: unrealistic criteria
E: bereavement - no work/ cope with stress - criteria is too demanding
T: few people meet all criteria and everyone is classed as abnormal
P: culture bias
E: self actualization is normal in individualistic cultures but not collectivist
T: cannot applied to all cultures as labeling those in collectivist cultures as abnormal could devalue their culture
