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Psychopathology (general) Flashcards

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1
Q

What are some behavioural characteristics of phobias?

A

Panic, avoidance, and endurance

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2
Q

What are some emotional characteristics of phobias?

A

Anxiety, unreasonable responses

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3
Q

What are some cognitive characteristics of phobias?

A

Selective attention, irrational beliefs, cognitive distortions

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4
Q

Explain how phobias are acquired through classical conditioning

A

We associate something which we have no fear of with something which naturally elicits a fear response. This leads to a fear of the initially neutral object. For example, in the Little Albert study, Albert associated a white rat with a loud noise, causing his fear of the rat.

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5
Q

Explain how phobias are maintained through operant conditioning

A

When an individual avoids their phobia, they are negatively reinforced with decreased anxiety. This means they are more likely to avoid their phobia in the future.

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6
Q

What are two limitations of the classical conditioning explanation for phobias?

A

It does not explain why some phobias are more common than others.
It does not explain phobics who have never had a traumatic experience with their phobia.

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7
Q

What is a strength of the operant conditioning explanation for phobias?

A

Therapies which involve deliberate exposure to the phobia stop the process of negative reinforcement. These therapies have been found to be successful, supporting the claim that negative reinforcement maintains phobias.

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8
Q

What is one strength of the Little Albert study?

A

It was a well-controlled lab experiment, which means that we can be confident that the conditioning did in fact cause the phobia.

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9
Q

What is one weakness of the Little Albert study?

A

It is an individual case study, so it may be that Albert is an easily conditioned outlier, making the findings ungeneralisable.

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10
Q

What did DiNardo et al. discover about phobias?

A

Over 60% of dog phobics related their phobia to a particularly frightening event. However non-phobics reported a similar proportion of such experiences. This shows that factors other than classical conditioning must affect phobias.

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11
Q

Describe the process of systematic desensitisation

A

1) The phobic creates an ‘anxiety hierarchy’ in which they list situations from least to most anxiety producing
2) The phobic is taught relaxation techniques, such as meditation and breathing exercises
3) The phobic is exposed to the situations on their hierarchy, one at a time, using the relaxation techniques between each step, until they feel relaxed in their most anxiety producing situation

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12
Q

Describe the process of flooding

A

The phobic is exposed to their highest anxiety producing situation straight away. For example a person with arachnophobia may hold a spider in their hand.

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13
Q

Describe Smith and Glass’s meta-analysis on phobia treatments

A

They found that systematic desensitisation was the most effective treatment, with an effect size of 0.91. The meta-analysis took results from 223 studies into SD, meaning that it is unlikely the result is a fluke.

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14
Q

Describe Gilroy et al.’s study into systematic desensitisation

A

They followed up on 42 arachnophobics after being treated with systematic desensitisation. He found, using a ‘spider questionnaire’ and exposing the group to spiders, that they were less fearful than the control group, who were treated with relaxation therapy. This suggests that SD is effective.

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15
Q

Describe Barlow’s meta-analysis into flooding and systematic desensitisation

A

Barlow conducted a meta-analysis using findings from studies into flooding and systematic desensitisation, and found that they were equally effective.

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16
Q

What is one limitation of flooding?

A

It can be traumatic for the phobic

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17
Q

What is one limitation of systematic desensitisation?

A

The phobic has to undergo lots of sessions

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18
Q

Explain the ‘evolution-preparedness’ explanation of acquiring phobias

A

We have an innate disposition to acquire phobias of things which were threats to our survival in our evolutionary past. This explains why some phobias are more common than others.

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19
Q

Describe Garcia and Koelling’s study into the ‘evolution-preparedness’ explanation for phobias

A

They gave rats a sweet-tasting drink paired with either a drug that made them sick or an electric shock. The rats acquired a dislike for the drink more quickly with the drug, as sickness is part of our evolutionary past, whereas electric shocks are not.

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20
Q

What is a limitation of the ‘evolution-preparedness’ explanation of acquiring phobias?

A

It does not explain phobias relating to modern things like cars, or to harmless things like bellybuttons

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21
Q

Explain the ‘genetics’ explanation of acquiring phobias

A

Some people may inherit genes which make them more likely to acquire a phobia. This explain why some people acquire a phobia after a traumatic incident while others do not.

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22
Q

What is a limitation of the ‘genetics’ explanation of acquiring phobias?

A

Twin studies which have been done on the subject have produced contradictory, inconclusive concordance rates.

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23
Q

Explain the social learning theory explanation of acquiring phobias

A

We observe models showing a fear of something, and we acquire the same fear vicariously. This explains why some phobias are more common than others, and why some people have phobias without having a traumatic experience linked to it.

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24
Q

Describe Leib et al.’s study into the social learning theory explanation of acquiring phobias

A

They investigated children with phobias and found that they were likely to have parents with similar phobias. In this case, the parents are the role models.

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25
Q

When can flooding be an inappropriate treatment?

A

For certain phobias like social phobias, and certain people, like those with learning difficulties.

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26
Q

What are some behavioural characteristics of depression?

A

Low activity levels, disruption to sleeping/eating patterns, and self-harm

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27
Q

What are some emotional characteristics of depression?

A

Low mood and self-esteem, and anger

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28
Q

What are some cognitive characteristics of depression?

A

Poor concentration, dwelling on the negative, absolutist thinking

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29
Q

Describe Beck’s cognitive theory of depression

A

Some people think in ways that make the cognitively vulnerable to depression. When faced with the same situation as someone else, they will think differently and more negatively.

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30
Q

Describe Beck’s negative triad

A

A cyclic, negative view of life. A constant cycle between views of the self (e.g. I am worthless), views of the world (e.g. everything bad happens to me), and views of the future (e.g. nothing is going to change).

31
Q

Outline Ellis’ ABC model

A

A: activating event triggers…
B: beliefs which are irrational, which produces…
C: consequences (an emotional response - depression).
This process causes depression.

32
Q

What is one problem with Beck’s theory?

A

The evidence is only correlational; we can’t tell if the negative triad causes the depression, or is a result of it.

33
Q

Describe Grazioli and Terry’s study into depression. What do the findings tell us?

A

They identified cognitively vulnerable pregnant women, and found that these women were more likely to develop post-natal depression after their child was born. As their negative cognitive style was identified pre-depression, this suggests that Beck was correct, and that the negative triad does cause depression.

34
Q

Describe Koster’s study into depression. What do the findings tell us?

A

Participants were presented with positive, negative or neutral words, after which they had to identify the location of a square on a screen. Depressed participants took longer to locate the square after a negative word, as opposed to the control group, who were not affected by the word type. This suggests that depressed people focus on the negative, supporting Beck’s theory.

35
Q

What is one strength of Beck and Ellis’ work?

A

The findings have lead to the basis of cognitive behavioural therapy. This is a strength because the work has practical applications. Also, the fact that CBT is successful suggests that Beck and Ellis’s theories are correct.

36
Q

What is one limitation of Beck and Ellis’ work?

A

It doesn’t explain all aspects of depression, for example anger associated with depression, and hallucinations or delusions. It also doesn’t explain depression without an activating event.

37
Q

Outline the process of Beck’s cognitive therapy in CBT.

A

1) Identify the negative beliefs (the negative triad)
2) Challenge these beliefs using rational thinking or evidence (reality testing)
3) Set homework after the session e.g. to record certain events/try new things

38
Q

Outline the process of Ellis’ rational emotional behaviour therapy (REBT) in CBT

A

The ABC model is extended to the ABCDE model (D = disputing the belief, E = effects of therapy). A therapist would dispute the depressed patient’s irrational beliefs by empirical argument (showing they are factually mistaken) or logical argument (showing the patient has drawn unjustified conclusions from a situation).

39
Q

What is CBT?

A

CBT stands for cognitive behaviour therapy. It is the most common type of therapy used to treat depression, and is based around identifying and changing irrational beliefs. It uses techniques from both Beck’s cognitive therapy and Ellis’ REBT.

40
Q

Outline March et al.’s study into the effectiveness of CBT

A

They compared the improvement rates of depressed patients who had received CBT, drug treatment, or both approaches. They found that CBT or drug treatment alone had similar improvement rates (88%), but when used in combination they had a higher improvement rate (94%). This suggests that the most effective treatment is using both CBT and drugs.

41
Q

In what case may CBT not be appropriate?

A

In severe cases of depression the patient may not be able to engage in CBT as they may be completely unmotivated to make changes.

42
Q

What consideration could undermine the true effectiveness of CBT?

A

It may not be the content of the CBT which helps the patient get better; some studies have shown that the most important thing is the therapist-patient relationship e.g. being listened to and taken seriously. This criticises CBT as its content may not be connected to its effectiveness.

43
Q

What are some behavioural characteristics of OCD?

A

Repetition of compulsive behaviours, and avoidance of the anxiety-triggering situation

44
Q

What are some emotional characteristics of OCD?

A

Anxiety and distress, depression and guilt or disgust

45
Q

What are some cognitive characteristics of OCD?

A

Obsessive thoughts, having strategies to deal with obsessions (e.g. praying 50 times a day to rid self of guilt), and knowing that their obsessions are irrational

46
Q

What is the reasoning behind thinking that OCD could be inherited?

A

Genes code for every cell in a human being, including the brain. The brain is the source of your mental state. OCD is a disorder of your mental state. We inherit our genes, so we could inherit the genes for OCD.

47
Q

Explain the diathesis-stress model for OCD

A

Genetics increase how vulnerable individuals are to developing OCD, but the environment determines which of those who are vulnerable will actually develop the disorder. This model explains how nature and nurture interact, suggesting that neither factor will lead to OCD on its own.

48
Q

Outline Nestadt et al.’s review of OCD

A

They reviewed previous twin studies into OCD and found that the concordance rates for identical twins was 68%, and opposed to 31% for non-identical twins. This strongly suggests a genetic influence on OCD.

49
Q

Explain how serotonin may contribute to OCD

A

Serotonin relays mood-relevant information from one neuron to the next. If someone has low serotonin levels, this does not take place. It is also thought that serotonin is linked to preventing the repetition of tasks, and a lack of it therefore leads to the loss of this system. Therefore a low level of serotonin may contribute to OCD. PET scans have shows low levels of serotonin in OCD sufferers.

50
Q

How can SSRIs help OCD sufferers?

A

SSRIs increase serotonin levels by preventing its re-absorption

51
Q

What is one problem for the theory that serotonin contributes to OCD?

A

Many people who have OCD also suffer with depression. It is known that depression is closely linked with serotonin, so it is unclear whether OCD is actually linked to serotonin levels, or if it is just the depression.

52
Q

Explain how impairment to the frontal lobes may contribute to OCD

A

Some types of OCD, particularly hoarding, are associated with poor decision making, which is a process controlled by the frontal lobes. Also, the parahippocampal gyrus is associated with processing unpleasant emotions, and functions abnormally in OCD sufferers. In addition, PET scans have show high activity in the orbito-frontal cortex, an area associated with controlling impulses, in people with OCD,

53
Q

What is one problem for the theory that impairment to the frontal lobes may contribute to OCD?

A

Brain systems which sometimes play a role in OCD have been identified, but scientists are yet to find any which are always involved. Therefore it is difficult to truly understand the neural mechanisms involved in OCD.

54
Q

Why is a combination of CBT and drugs most effective?

A

Drugs offer short-term relief, reducing symptoms and allowing the patient to engage in CBT. Whereas CBT teaches long-term skills so the patient can prevent future episodes.

55
Q

Outline Fineberg et al.’s study into treating OCD

A

They compared the impact of the drug Escitalopram with a placebo on the symptoms of 320 OCD patients. It was a randomly allocated, double blind clinical trial. After 24 weeks 52% of the placebo group reported recurrance of their OCD symptoms as opposed to 23% of the Escitalopram group.

56
Q

Outline Soomro et al.’s meta-analysis into treating OCD

A

They reviewed 17 drug trials. All 17 trials had better results for SSRIs than placebos, with 70% of patients improving when taking SSRIs.

57
Q

What is one advantage and one disadvantage to drug treatment?

A

Drug treatment is non-disruptive to the patient’s life. However it can have side effects such as indigestion, loss of sex drive, weight gain, or even no effect at all.

58
Q

What problems are there with taking evidence from clinical drug trials?

A

Drug trials are sponsored by drug companies, so if the result does not favour the company, it wont be published. This is known as the file-drawer problem. This means that, particularly in meta-analysis, the drug appears to be more effective than it actually is.

59
Q

What is a strength of ‘statistical deviation’?

A

It is frequently used in assessment as it appropriately applies to a range of disorders

60
Q

What is a weakness of ‘statistical deviation’?

A

It has an arbitrary cut off point; the divide between normal and abnormal is unjustified. It is not logical that a person with IQ 71 is normal, whereas a person with IQ 69 is abnormal.

61
Q

What is a strength of ‘deviation from social norms’?

A

For example, a person with an abnormally high intelligence would not be defined as abnormal, as it is acceptable

62
Q

What is a weakness of ‘deviation from social norms’?

A

Social norms vary between cultures; i.e. you could move country and go from being normal to being abnormal without changing yourself

63
Q

What implication for homosexuality did ‘deviation from social norms’ have in the past?

A

Homosexuality was not socially acceptable in the past, and this was used as justification to ‘treat’ homosexuals with horrific methods

64
Q

What are the features of ‘failure to function adequately?

A

Personal distress, maladaptive behaviour, unpredictability, irrationality, observer discomfort, violation of moral standards, unconventionality

65
Q

What is a strength of ‘failure to function adequately’?

A

It is a flexible and personal measure which considers how much/if your abnormality affects your life - which is key when deciding on treatment

66
Q

What is the criteria for ‘ideal mental health’, according to Jahoda?

A

Positive attitude towards oneself, self-actualisation, autonomy, resisting stress, accurate representation of reality, environmental mastery

67
Q

What is a strength of ‘deviation from ideal mental health’?

A

It is a flexible and personal measure which covers a broad range of criteria for mental health

68
Q

What is a weakness of ‘deviation from ideal mental health’?

A

It sets unrealistically high standards for mental health; most people wont meet all of the criteria. Therefore it is a redundant measure of abnormality.

69
Q

What criticism has been made of cognitive approaches to explaining disorders?

A

They focus too much on cognitive processes and minimise the importance of social factors

70
Q

What is one limitation of the research method used to establish the biological basis of a disorder?

A

Twin studies assume MZs and DZs only differ in their genetic makeup, but it may also be the case that MZs share a more similar environment than DZs (e.g. if they are of opposite sex), so it is difficult to isolate the effects of genetics

71
Q

Give two alternative drugs to SSRIs

A

Tricyclics and SNRIs

72
Q

What is a weakness of ‘failure to function adequately’?

A

It relies on subjective judgement made by psychiatrists. ‘Adequately’ is a flexible and subjective term.

73
Q

How has research into mental illness impacted the economy?

A

Absence from work costs the economy £15 billion a year, and a third of these absences are due to mental illness. Psychological research leading to the development of treatments for mental health can reduce such absences and improve the economy.

Yousef NEW psych (15 decks)

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